Atlas of Unrecognised States

A list for readers without scripts and for search engines. Each line gives the title, the kind of case, the present-day territory, the period and the opening sentence of the entry.

I.1. The United States and Canada

1. Alaskan Independence Party (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1973 to present). The Alaskan Independence Party was founded in 1973 by Joe Vogler to press for a vote on whether Alaska should remain in the United States.
2. Alberta, Independence Petitions and the Referendum of 19 October 2026 (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 2025 to present). In 2026 a citizen petition titled A Referendum Relating to Alberta Independence, organised by Stay Free Alberta and led by Mitch Sylvestre, asked whether the Province of Alberta should cease to be a part of Canada to become an independent state.
3. Apalachicola Bay, Maroon Community of (Negro Fort) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1816). The community known to Americans as the Negro Fort occupied Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River in Spanish Florida from 1815 to 1816.
4. Arizona, Confederate Territory of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861 to 1862). Citizens' conventions at Mesilla and Tucson voted in 1861 to secede from the United States and join the Confederacy.
5. California Republic (Bear Flag Revolt) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1846). On 14 June 1846 a party of 33 American settlers gathered before dawn outside the house of General Mariano Vallejo at Sonoma, in Mexican Alta California, arrested him and proclaimed an independent California republic.
6. Cherokee Nation (Removal-Era Claim to Self-Government) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1827 to 1839). The Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution in 1827 and kept its capital at New Echota, in Georgia, where its National Council met and its Supreme Court sat.
7. Confederate States of America (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861 to 1865). The Confederate States of America was formed on 4 February 1861 at Montgomery, Alabama, where delegates from six Deep South states, joined within days by Texas, wrote a provisional constitution, sat as a provisional congress and elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president.
8. Deseret, State of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1849 to 1850). The State of Deseret was the name that Latter-day Saint settlers in the Salt Lake Valley gave in 1849 to a proposed state.
9. East Tennessee Convention and Proposed Separate Statehood (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861). Unionist delegates from East Tennessee met in convention at Knoxville on 30 and 31 May 1861 and reassembled at Greeneville from 17 to 20 June 1861, in opposition to Tennessee's secession from the Union.
10. Fifty, Council of (Nauvoo, 1844) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1844 to 1846). In March 1844 Joseph Smith and a group of prominent elders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints met at Nauvoo, Illinois, to consider a proposal for a gathering place in the Republic of Texas.
11. Franklin, State of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1784 to 1788). The State of Franklin was a separatist government formed in 1784 by settlers in the western counties of North Carolina, in what is now eastern Tennessee.
12. Ganienkeh, North American Indian State of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1974 to present). In May 1974 a convoy of Mohawks from the Kahnawake and Akwesasne reservations occupied Moss Lake, a 612-acre former girls' summer camp in the Adirondacks, and gave the site the name Ganienkeh, meaning "Land of the Flint".
13. Hawaiian Kingdom, Council of Regency and Restoration Claims (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1893 to present). The claim that the Hawaiian Kingdom continues to exist in international law reached an international forum in Larsen v.
14. Indian Stream, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1832 to 1835). The Republic of Indian Stream was a settler government established in July 1832 in a strip of territory along the upper Connecticut River that both the United States and Britain's Canadian colonial authorities claimed, under competing readings of the boundary in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
15. Jefferson, State of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1941 to present). The State of Jefferson movement emerged in November 1941 among residents of the rural counties of northern California and southern Oregon, whose leaders, frustrated by inadequate road investment and a sense of political neglect from both state capitals, staged a series of publicity actions, including armed roadblocks collecting a mock "toll" and a proclamation of secession, to press for the creation of a new forty-ninth state combining the two regions.
16. Jefferson, Territory of (1859) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1859 to 1861). The Territory of Jefferson was an extralegal territorial government organised in 1859 by gold-rush settlers around Denver in the Pike's Peak region, where Congress had not organised a territory.
17. Kansas, Free-State Government of (Topeka Constitution) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1855 to 1857). Free-State settlers in Kansas Territory, rejecting the proslavery territorial legislature, drafted the Topeka Constitution in October 1855, a document that prohibited slavery and was designed to counter proslavery territorial governance.
18. Kentucky, Confederate Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861 to 1862). Confederate troops under General Simon B. Buckner seized Bowling Green on 18 September 1861, and General Albert Sidney Johnston established his headquarters there.
19. Lakotah, Republic of (Russell Means Declaration of 2007) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 2007 to present). In December 2007 a delegation led by the activist Russell Means delivered to the United States Department of State a letter announcing the "unilateral withdrawal" of the Lakota Nation from treaties signed with the United States in the nineteenth century, among them those of 1851 and 1868.
20. Lower Canada, Republic of (Robert Nelson) (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1838). On 28 February 1838 Robert Nelson, a physician and veteran of the rising of 1837, crossed from Alburg, Vermont, into Lower Canada at the head of between 300 and 400 Patriotes and issued a declaration of independence for Lower Canada.
21. Manitobah, Republic of (Thomas Spence, 1867 to 1868) (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1867 to 1868). In 1867 Thomas Spence proclaimed at Portage la Prairie, a settlement outside the judicial district of Assiniboia, a government first styled the Republican Monarchy of Caledonia and later Manitobah, with himself as President.
22. Missouri, Confederate Government of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861 to 1865). The Missouri State Convention voted 98 to 1 against secession on 19 March 1861, but Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson pursued a Confederate course.
23. Muskogee, State of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1799 to 1803). The State of Muskogee was the project of William Augustus Bowles, an adventurer born, according to most sources, on 2 November 1763 in Frederick County, Maryland.
24. New Afrika, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1968 to present). The Republic of New Afrika originated in the Malcolm X Society, founded in Detroit in 1967 by two brothers who took the names Gaidi and Imari Obadele, and took shape in 1968, when supporters meeting at a Black Government Conference in Detroit adopted a declaration of independence.
25. Oglala Sioux Nation, Independent (Wounded Knee Occupation) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1973). The occupation of Wounded Knee, a hamlet on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, began on 27 February 1973, when followers of the American Indian Movement seized the town.
26. Oregon, Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1843 to 1849). In May 1843 American settlers in the Oregon Country, which the United States and Britain occupied in common, established the Oregon Provisional Government at Champoeg in the Willamette Valley after a series of settler meetings.
27. Pueblo Revolt (New Mexico, 1680 to 1692) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1680 to 1692). In August 1680 the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico rose against Spanish rule and drove the colonists out of the province.
28. Quebec Independence Movement and the Secession Reference (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1968 to present). The modern Quebec independence movement took organised electoral form with the Parti Québécois, founded by René Lévesque in 1968.
29. Red River Resistance (Manitoba) (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1869 to 1870). The Red River Resistance arose in 1869 from the transfer of Rupert's Land by the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada, which was set for 1 December 1869.
30. Saskatchewan, Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1885). Louis Riel returned to the North-West Territories in July 1884 at the invitation of Métis residents and settled at Batoche.
31. Second Vermont Republic (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 2003 to present). The Second Vermont Republic was founded in 2003 by Thomas H. Naylor after he self-published The Vermont Manifesto.
32. Sequoyah, Proposed State of (1905) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1905 to 1907). The Sequoyah Convention met at the Hinton Theater in Muskogee, in the Creek Nation, on 21 and 22 August and from 5 to 8 September 1905, with chiefs of four of the Five Tribes attending, and drafted a constitution for a separate state of Sequoyah covering about the eastern half of present-day Oklahoma.
33. Six Nations of the Grand River (Deskaheh Mission to the League of Nations, 1923 to 1925) (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1923 to 1925). Deskaheh (Levi General), a Cayuga chief installed as a hereditary chief in 1917, deputy speaker of the council in 1918 and speaker in 1922, travelled with the American lawyer George Palmer Decker to London and then to Geneva, where he stayed for over a year seeking recognition of the Six Nations as an independent state under article 17 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
34. Texas Nationalist Movement (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 2005 to present). The Texas Nationalist Movement was established in 2005 by Daniel Miller, a technology consultant based in Nederland, Texas, to advocate Texan independence, a goal styled Texit.
35. Texas, Republic of (Fort Davis Standoff, 1997) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1997). The Republic of Texas was an armed separatist group that proclaimed Texas an independent country, a position that rested on the belief of its leader, Richard McLaren, 43, a Missouri native who had moved to Texas in the 1970s, that the annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845 had been unlawful.
36. Trans-Oconee Republic (Elijah Clarke, 1794) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1794). In May 1794 Elijah Clarke, a former Georgia militia officer who had resigned in February of that year and held a French commission as major general, led settlers across the Oconee River onto Muscogee (Creek) land, in what are now parts of Greene, Morgan, Putnam and Baldwin counties.
37. Upper Canada, Republic of (Navy Island) (Secession or breakaway government; Canada; 1837 to 1838). After the failure of his rising at Montgomery's Tavern outside Toronto in December 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie occupied Navy Island, a small island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, with several hundred followers, among them American sympathisers.
38. Vermont Republic (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1777 to 1791). The Republic of Vermont existed as an independent polity from 1777 to 1791 on the territory known as the New Hampshire Grants, which New York and New Hampshire both claimed.
39. Virginia, Restored Government of (Wheeling) (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1861 to 1863). The Restored Government of Virginia was the loyalist administration of Virginia formed at Wheeling in June 1861 after the state's secession from the Union.
40. Watauga Association (Secession or breakaway government; United States; 1772 to 1776). The Watauga Association was a self-governing settlement of white colonists on the Watauga River in what is now north-eastern Tennessee, organised in 1772 on land that lay outside the authority of the British colonial governments and within territory the Cherokee recognised as theirs.

I.2. Latin America

1. Acre, Republics of (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1899 to 1903). Between 1899 and 1903 the Acre region, which Bolivia held and which Brazilians had settled in large numbers, was the scene of separatist republics.
2. Airrecú, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Costa Rica; 1998 to present). Airrecú was a republic proclaimed by separatists over about 170 square miles of swampland on the border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
3. Antioquia, Free State of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1813 to 1816). On 11 August 1813 the province of Antioquia, in what is now Colombia, declared absolute independence from the Spanish crown under the leadership of Juan del Corral.
4. Arauca, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1819). In the Colombian Llanos, on 30 December 1916, Humberto Gómez crossed the Arauca River with an armed following, attacked the local garrison and proclaimed the Republic of Arauca.
5. Auca Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Suriname; 1760 to 1800). The Ndyuka (Okanisi), sometimes called the Auca, were one of several self-governing maroon communities formed by escaped enslaved people in the interior of Suriname.
6. Bahia, Republic of (Sabinada) (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1837 to 1838). The Sabinada was a rising at Salvador, the capital of the Brazilian province of Bahia, whose leaders proclaimed a Bahian Republic on 7 November 1837.
7. Buenos Aires, State of (Secession or breakaway government; Argentina; 1852 to 1861). After the defeat of Juan Manuel de Rosas at Caseros on 3 February 1852, the province of Buenos Aires rejected the Acuerdo de San Nicolas and constituted itself as an autonomous state, outside the Argentine Confederation organised by Justo José de Urquiza.
8. Buraco do Tatú (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1743 to 1763). The quilombo of Buraco do Tatú was established around 1743 near present-day Itapuã on the outskirts of Salvador, Bahia.
9. Cancuc (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1712). In August 1712 the Tzeltal community of San Juan Cancuc, in the highlands of Chiapas, became the centre of a rebellion that spread among neighbouring Tzeltal, Tzotzil and Ch'ol towns after a thirteen-year-old girl, María López, known as María de la Candelaria, reported apparitions of the Virgin Mary instructing the indigenous population to reject Spanish and ecclesiastical authority.
10. Cartagena de Indias, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1811 to 1815). On 11 November 1811 the Junta Suprema of Cartagena de Indias, pressed by the city's people and their delegates, adopted an act declaring the province a free state with absolute independence from Spain ("Estado libre, soberano, con independencia absoluta de España"); twenty signatories are recorded.
11. Chiapas (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1821 to 1824). Chiapas passed through a period of contested allegiance between the end of Spanish rule and its incorporation into Mexico.
12. Chuquisaca, Revolutionary Junta of (Secession or breakaway government; Bolivia; 1809). The Chuquisaca Revolution began on 25 May 1809 in the Upper Peruvian city of Chuquisaca, present-day Sucre, when university scholars and local elites deposed the president of the audiencia, Ramón García León de Pizarro, and set up a self-governing junta.
13. Confederation of the Equator (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1824). The Confederation of the Equator was proclaimed on 2 July 1824 in Recife, in the Brazilian province of Pernambuco, by Manuel de Carvalho Paes de Andrade, who issued a manifesto the same day.
14. Cundinamarca (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1811 to 1816). The Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca arose from the Bogotá cabildo's rejection of Spanish authority in 1810, and its constitution was proclaimed on 4 April 1811.
15. Entre Ríos, Republic of (Ramírez, 1820 to 1821) (Secession or breakaway government; Argentina; 1820 to 1821). The Republic of Entre Ríos was proclaimed in 1820 by Francisco Ramírez, a federalist caudillo of the province, and comprised Entre Ríos, Corrientes and part of Misiones.
16. Esmeraldas, Zambo Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Ecuador; 1553 to 1600). In 1553 a ship sailing from Panama to Lima was wrecked on the coast of Esmeraldas, in present-day Ecuador.
17. Federal League (Secession or breakaway government; Argentina; 1815 to 1820). The Federal League, known as the League of Free Peoples (Liga de los Pueblos Libres), was an association of Río de la Plata provinces that broke with Buenos Aires under the influence of José Gervasio Artigas, leader of the Banda Oriental.
18. Guayaquil, Free Province of (Secession or breakaway government; Ecuador; 1820 to 1822). The Free Province of Guayaquil (Provincia Libre de Guayaquil) arose from the uprising of 9 October 1820, which ended Spanish administration in the city.
19. Juliana Republic (Republic of Santa Catarina) (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1839). The Juliana Republic was a short-lived republic proclaimed in 1839 at Laguna, in the Brazilian province of Santa Catarina, during the Farroupilha War.
20. Leon (Secession or breakaway government; Nicaragua; 1821 to 1822). On 28 September 1821, after the Kingdom of Guatemala had declared its independence from Spain, the provincial authorities of León, in the province of Nicaragua, met in session and issued the Acta de los Nublados (Act of the Clouds).
21. Magonista Baja California (1911) (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1911). In December 1910 Ricardo Flores Magón of the Partido Liberal Mexicano sent followers to the Imperial Valley to prepare a revolution, and the invasion of Baja California began in January 1911.
22. Marquetalia, Independent Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1948 to 1964). Marquetalia was one of several enclaves in isolated, neglected rural areas of Colombia that emerged in the 1950s and were known as 'independent republics'.
23. Merida (Secession or breakaway government; Venezuela; 1810 to 1811). On 16 September 1810 an open town council (cabildo abierto) at Mérida, convened the previous day by Antonio Ignacio Rodríguez Picón, President of the Ayuntamiento and Teniente de Justicia Mayor, declared the separation of Mérida from the province of Maracaibo and, in the account of López Bohórquez, from Spain.
24. Mompox, Independence of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1810 to 1816). On 6 August 1810 the town of Santa Cruz de Mompox, on the Magdalena River in New Granada, declared itself the first town of the kingdom to seek full independence from Spain, according to the Cartagena newspaper El Universal, and adopted the motto 'ser libres o morir'.
25. New Granada, United Provinces of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1811 to 1816). The United Provinces of New Granada were constituted by the Act of Federation signed at Santafé de Bogotá on 27 November 1811, amid the collapse of Spanish royal authority.
26. Oaxaca, Sovereign State of (1915 Movement) (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1915 to 1920). On 3 June 1915 the State Congress of Oaxaca issued Decree No. 14, by which the state declared that it would 'resume its sovereignty' and be governed by the federal Constitution of 5 February 1857, the Reform Laws, its own constitution and its other laws 'until such time as peace and constitutional order should be reestablished'.
27. Panama (Secession or breakaway government; Panama; 1840 to 1841). On 18 November 1840, during the War of the Supremes in New Granada (1839 to 1842), a popular assembly at Panama issued an act declaring the Isthmus a free and independent state; Colonel Tomás Herrera drafted it and headed the new government.
28. Pernambuco, Republic of (Revolution of 1817) (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1817). On 6 March 1817 an alliance of politicians, clergy, soldiers, planters and merchants at Recife, the capital of the captaincy of Pernambuco, declared a republic and installed a provisional government.
29. Peru-Bolivia Confederation (Secession or breakaway government; Bolivia; 1836 to 1839). The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was established in 1836 by Andrés de Santa Cruz, a Bolivian general and former president of Peru, who united Bolivia and Peru, the latter divided into the North Peruvian and South Peruvian states, under his authority as Protector.
30. Piratini Republic (Riograndense Republic) (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1835 to 1845). The Riograndense Republic, also called the Piratini Republic, was proclaimed on 11 September 1836 by General Antônio de Sousa Neto at the Campos do Seival, after his victory there, and declared the separation of Rio Grande do Sul from the Empire of Brazil.
31. Quilombo do Quariterê (Tereza de Benguela) (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1730 to 1770). The Quilombo do Quariterê was a community of escaped enslaved Africans and Indigenous people in the Guaporé valley of the captaincy of Mato Grosso, formed in the 1730s according to the Universidade Federal Fluminense project Impressões Rebeldes.
32. Quilombo dos Palmares (Secession or breakaway government; Brazil; 1600 to 1694). Palmares was a fortified settlement of fugitives from slavery in the interior of north-eastern Brazil, formed in the early seventeenth century, whose residents called it Angola Janga.
33. Quito, Free State of (Junta of 1809 to 1812) (Secession or breakaway government; Ecuador; 1809 to 1812). Leaders in Quito installed a governing junta on 10 August 1809 with Juan Pío Montúfar, Marquis of Selva Alegre, as president, professing loyalty to Ferdinand VII while assuming the powers of government.
34. Republic of Yucatán (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1823 to 1848). The Republic of Yucatán was a state proclaimed by the legislature of the Yucatán peninsula in its dispute with the centralist governments of Mexico.
35. San Basilio de Palenque (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1600 to present). San Basilio de Palenque, near Cartagena de Indias on Colombia's Caribbean coast, descends from the maroon settlement of San Miguel Arcángel, which a chronological listing of the Colombian palenques places under Domingo Criollo in 1684, in the district of Tolú.
36. Santa Cruz, Republic of (Chan Santa Cruz) (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1850 to 1901). Chan Santa Cruz was the capital of a Maya polity that emerged in the south-east of the Yucatán peninsula, in what is now the Mexican state of Quintana Roo, during the Caste War of Yucatán, which began in 1847.
37. Socorro, Free and Independent State of (1810) (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1810 to 1816). The province of Socorro in New Granada established a governing junta on 10 and 11 July 1810 following confrontations with Spanish authorities, with José Lorenzo Plata Martínez as president of the supreme junta.
38. State of Los Altos (Secession or breakaway government; Guatemala; 1838 to 1840). The State of Los Altos was set up in 1838 by Creole leaders in Quetzaltenango, in the highlands of western Guatemala, and is known in Guatemalan history as the Sexto Estado, the sixth state.
39. Tolú, Palenques of (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1600 to 1800). The district of Tolú, a Spanish-held coastal town in the province of Cartagena de Indias, gave its name to some of the earliest sustained maroon settlement in the region.
40. Tucumán, Republic of (1820 to 1821) (Secession or breakaway government; Argentina; 1820 to 1821). The Republic of Tucumán was created in 1820 in north-western Argentina, in the period of provisional provincial autonomies that followed the fall of the central government.
41. Tule, Republic of (San Blas/Kuna Revolution) (Secession or breakaway government; Panama; 1925). In 1925 the Guna (Kuna) people of the San Blas archipelago, on the Caribbean coast of Panama, rose against the Panamanian police and proclaimed a Republic of Tule.
42. Túpac Amaru II, Rebellion of (Secession or breakaway government; Peru; 1780 to 1781). The rebellion of 1780 to 1781 was led by José Gabriel Condorcanqui, who took the regnal name Túpac Amaru II and claimed descent from the last Inca, Túpac Amaru, executed by the Spanish in 1572.
43. Vilcabamba (Neo-Inca State) (Secession or breakaway government; Peru; 1537 to 1572). The Neo-Inca State of Vilcabamba was the remnant of Inca rule that survived in the forested Vilcabamba region, near Cuzco, after the Spanish conquest of Peru, which began in 1532.
44. Wallmapu, Autonomy and War Declaration of the Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco (2009) (Secession or breakaway government; Chile; 2009 to present). On 20 October 2009 the Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco (CAM) issued a declaration, signed by its Órganos de Resistencia Territorial, that renounced Chilean nationality and declared the territory south of the Biobío River an autonomous Mapuche nation.
45. Yanga (San Lorenzo de los Negros) (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1609 to present). The maroon settlement later known as San Lorenzo de los Negros arose in the sugar-growing region of Veracruz, in colonial Mexico, where Gaspar Yanga, who had escaped during an uprising of the 1570s, became leader of a palenque near Mount Orizaba.
46. Yaqui and Mayo Confederation of Juan Banderas (1825 to 1833) (Secession or breakaway government; Mexico; 1825 to 1833). Juan de la Cruz Banderas led a Yaqui rising in the 1820s and early 1830s that, according to a reviewer's summary of Evelyn Hu-DeHart's study, aimed at an Indian republic independent of Mexican rule.

I.3. The Caribbean and the Guianas

1. Anguilla, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Anguilla; 1967 to 1969). The Republic of Anguilla grew out of resentment at the small island's subordination to Saint Kitts within the associated state of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, a status Britain conferred on 27 February 1967.
2. Berbice, Slave Rebellion and Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Guyana; 1763 to 1764). In February 1763 enslaved people rose on plantations along the Berbice and Canje rivers in the Dutch colony of Berbice, in present-day Guyana.
3. Boni (Aluku) Maroons of French Guiana (Secession or breakaway government; French Guiana; 1765 to 1793). The Boni, who also call themselves the Aluku, are a Maroon people whose leader, Boni, brought them from Dutch Guiana (Suriname) across the Maroni river into French Guiana.
4. Cuba in Arms, Republic of (Guáimaro Constitution) (Secession or breakaway government; Cuba; 1868 to 1878). On 10 April 1869 delegates of the insurgents who had risen against Spanish rule since Carlos Manuel de Céspedes's Grito de Yara of October 1868 met at Guáimaro and adopted a constitution for the Republic of Cuba in Arms.
5. Garifuna Kingdom of St Vincent (Secession or breakaway government; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; 1700 to 1797). The Garifuna, whom the British called Black Caribs, resisted European settlement of St Vincent, where colonisation was delayed until the seventeenth century, in conflicts known as the Carib Wars.
6. Grenada, Fédon's Republic of (1795-1796) (Secession or breakaway government; Grenada; 1795 to 1796). On 2 March 1795 Julien Fédon and his followers rose against the British colonial government of Grenada.
7. Haiti, Republic of the South under Pétion (1806 to 1818) (Secession or breakaway government; Haiti; 1806 to 1818). After the assassination of Jean-Jacques Dessalines in 1806, Haiti divided between Henri Christophe in the north and Alexandre Pétion in the south.
8. Jamaican Maroons, Treaties and Self-Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Jamaica; 1739 to present). The Leeward Maroons under Captain Cudjoe concluded articles of pacification with the British colonial government dated 1 March 1738, a treaty that later accounts date to 1739.
9. Jayuya, Republic of (Puerto Rican Nationalist Uprising of 1950) (Secession or breakaway government; Puerto Rico; 1950). On 30 October 1950 Puerto Rican Nationalists led by Blanca Canales took the town of Jayuya as part of an armed insurrection called by the Nationalist Party under its president, Pedro Albizu Campos.
10. Leonor's Palenque (El Limón) (Secession or breakaway government; Colombia; 1600 to 1700). The palenque of El Limón (also El Limonar), a maroon settlement in the Sierras de María (also called the Montes de María), lay some twelve to fifteen leagues from Cartagena de Indias.
11. Nevis, Secession Referendum of 1998 (Secession or breakaway government; Saint Kitts and Nevis; 1998). The constitution of Saint Kitts and Nevis, adopted on independence in 1983, contains a secession clause (section 113) that requires a two-thirds majority in a Nevis referendum.
12. Puerto Rico, Republic of (Grito de Lares) (Secession or breakaway government; Puerto Rico; 1868). On 23 September 1868 an armed group at Lares declared a provisional government of the Republic of Puerto Rico, which proclaimed the abolition of slavery and set out democratic freedoms and rights for citizens.
13. Rupununi, Independent State of (Rupununi Uprising) (Secession or breakaway government; Guyana; 1969). On 2 January 1969 Rupununi ranchers of European descent, mostly of the Hart and Melville families, attacked Lethem in southern Guyana, killing police officers and civilians, taking the District Commissioner and others hostage and blocking airstrips.
14. Saint-Domingue, Colony of, under the Constitution of 1801 (Secession or breakaway government; Haiti; 1801 to 1802). A Constitutional Assembly convened by Toussaint Louverture on 4 February 1801 completed a constitution for Saint-Domingue in May, dated 19 Floréal of year 9, and Louverture approved it in July 1801.
15. Saramaka Maroons (Suriname) (Secession or breakaway government; Suriname; 1762 to present). The Saramaka, one of the Maroon peoples of the Suriname interior, concluded a peace treaty with the Dutch colonial government on 19 September 1762 at the junction of Sara Creek and the Suriname River, negotiated for the colony by Louis Nepveu and signed by the Saramaka captains.
16. Spanish Haiti, Independent State of (Secession or breakaway government; Dominican Republic; 1821 to 1822). On 1 December 1821 José Núñez de Cáceres led a conspiracy against the Spanish Captain General of Santo Domingo and constituted the Spanish part of Hispaniola as a free and independent state, the Estado Independiente del Haití Español, which renounced Spanish rule.

II.1. Postcolonial Secessions and Breakaway Governments

1. Abyei, Ngok Dinka Referendum of 2013 (Secession or breakaway government; South Sudan; 2013). The Abyei Protocol provided that a plebiscite on the future of the Abyei area be organised by a commission agreed between Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement, under local, regional and international monitoring, with voting rights limited to the nine Ngok Dinka clans and Sudanese resident in the area.
2. Afar Republic Movement and the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Front (ARDUF) (Secession or breakaway government; Ethiopia; 1975 to present). The Afar inhabit adjoining parts of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti.
3. Ambazonia (Southern Cameroons) (Secession or breakaway government; Cameroon; 1961 to present). Southern Cameroons, the British-administered part of the former German colony of Kamerun, joined Cameroon in 1961.
4. Anjouan, State of (Secession or breakaway government; Comoros; 1997 to 2008). On 3 August 1997 the island of Anjouan declared unilateral independence from the Comoros.
5. Annobón, Independence Declaration of (Ambo Legadu, 2022) (Secession or breakaway government; Equatorial Guinea; 2022 to present). On 8 July 2022 the liberation movement Ambo Legadu, led by Orlando Cartagena Lagar, declared the independence of Annobón, an island of about 5,000 people in the Gulf of Guinea that forms one of the eight provinces of Equatorial Guinea.
6. Awdal Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Somaliland; 1995 to present). The Awdal Republic was proclaimed in an open letter to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, circulated by email on 13 February 1995 and signed "the people of Awdal Republic".
7. Azawad, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Mali; 2012 to 2013). The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), a Tuareg-led coalition, proclaimed the independence of Azawad on 6 April 2012, after its forces had taken control of northern Mali in the weeks following the military coup in Bamako.
8. Bakassi, Republic of (Bakassi Movement for Self-Determination, 2006) (Secession or breakaway government; Cameroon; 2006 to 2008). The International Court of Justice decided the dispute over the Bakassi peninsula in favour of Cameroon on 10 October 2002.
9. Barotseland (Lozi Kingdom), Autonomy of (Secession or breakaway government; Zambia; 1964 to present). The Lozi kingdom of Barotseland, ruled by its Litunga, entered the colonial period under the protection of Britain on terms set by the Lewanika Concessions of 1900, which allowed Lozi institutions to persist within Northern Rhodesia.
10. Biafra, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Nigeria; 1967 to 1970). The Republic of Biafra was proclaimed on 30 May 1967 by Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, military governor of Nigeria's Eastern Region, following massacres of Igbo civilians in northern Nigeria in 1966.
11. Cabinda, Republic of (FLEC) (Secession or breakaway government; Angola; 1975 to present). Cabinda, an oil-producing coastal enclave separated from the rest of Angola by a strip of territory belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was administered by Portugal as a protectorate distinct from Angola proper, a status that Cabindan separatists argue was never extinguished when Portugal withdrew in 1975.
12. Caprivi, Republic of the (Secession or breakaway government; Namibia; 1998 to 1999). On 2 August 1999 the Caprivi Liberation Army, led by Mishake Muyongo, a former leader of the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, attacked government installations at Katima Mulilo, the regional capital of the Caprivi Strip, in an attempt to establish an independent Caprivi separate from Namibia.
13. Casamance (Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance) (Secession or breakaway government; Senegal; 1982 to present). The Casamance region of southern Senegal, separated from the rest of the country by the territory of The Gambia and where the Jola form the main population, has seen a separatist insurgency since 1982 waged by the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC).
14. Eritrea, Provisional Government of (1991 to 1993) (Secession or breakaway government; Eritrea; 1991 to 1993). The Eritrean Liberation Front was founded in Cairo on 10 July 1960, and armed struggle for independence from Ethiopia began on 1 September 1961, when its fighters, under Hamid Idris Awate, attacked police stations in the Barka region.
15. Greater Liberia (National Patriotic Reconstruction Assembly Government, Gbarnga, from 1990) (Secession or breakaway government; Liberia; 1990 to 1997). Charles Taylor's forces invaded the Firestone rubber plantation on 5 June 1990, and Taylor named the territory under his control Greater Liberia, better known as "Taylorland", with the northern village of Gbarnga as his capital.
16. Kata Katanga (Katangan Secessionist Militia, 2010 to 2016) (Secession or breakaway government; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 2010 to 2016). Kata Katanga is the name of a Mayi-Mayi militia, rendered in Swahili as "cut Katanga" off from the rest of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, that claimed a series of attacks in the south-east of the country from January 2013.
17. Katanga, State of (Secession or breakaway government; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1960 to 1963). The State of Katanga was proclaimed on 11 July 1960, less than two weeks after the independence of the Congo, by Moïse Tshombe, president of the CONAKAT party, in the copper-producing southern province.
18. Logone, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Central African Republic; 2016 to present). On 14 December 2015 Noureddine Adam, leader of the Seleka faction that had overthrown President François Bozizé in 2013, declared the north of the Central African Republic an autonomous state under the name Republic of Logone, in a statement issued from Kaba-Bangoro, according to a report of the Voice of America dated 16 December 2015.
19. Maakhir, State of (Sanaag and Western Bari, Somalia, 2007) (Secession or breakaway government; Somalia; 2007 to 2009). The Maakhir state administration was proclaimed in 2007 as one of several Warsengeli attempts to create an autonomous administration in the Sanaag region of Somalia.
20. Madagascar, Breakaway Provinces of the 2002 Crisis (Secession or breakaway government; Madagascar; 2002). The disputed presidential election of December 2001 produced two rival claimants to power in Madagascar.
21. Mohéli (Mwali), State of (Secession or breakaway government; Comoros; 1997 to 1998). Mohéli (Mwali), the smallest of the three islands of the Comoros, announced its independence on 11 August 1997, in the same month in which separatists on Anjouan declared that island no longer part of the Comoros.
22. Mombasa Republican Council (Pwani si Kenya) (Secession or breakaway government; Kenya; 2008 to present). The Mombasa Republican Council (MRC) is a Kenyan coastal movement whose slogan, Pwani si Kenya, means the coast is not Kenya.
23. Niger Delta Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Nigeria; 1966). The Niger Delta Republic was declared on 23 February 1966 by Isaac Adaka Boro, an Ijaw from Kaiama in the Niger Delta, who recruited volunteers from his home area into the Niger Delta Volunteer Force.
24. Nile Republic (Secession or breakaway government; South Sudan; 1969 to 1972). The Nile Provisional Government was a southern Sudanese body that led the Anyanya guerrilla movement during the First Sudanese Civil War, with Gordon Muortat Mayen as its president.
25. Nuba Mountains, SPLM-N Administration of the (from 2011) (Secession or breakaway government; Sudan; 2011 to present). The Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLM-N) has fought the Sudanese government in the Nuba Mountains since June 2011, and at the end of October 2011 the Small Arms Survey recorded that it controlled all of the localities of Heiban, Boram and Um Durein.
26. Oduduwa Republic (Yoruba Nation Agitation, 2021) (Secession or breakaway government; Nigeria; 2021 to present). On the evening of 18 March 2021 the Yoruba activist Sunday Igboho declared, in a video shared online, that the Yoruba were a separate nation, and demanded the secession of the south-western states from Nigeria.
27. Ogaden (Western Somali Liberation Front and Ogaden National Liberation Front) (Secession or breakaway government; Ethiopia; 1977 to present). The Ogaden, the Somali-inhabited south-eastern region of Ethiopia, has been the object of two successive separatist movements.
28. Oromia (Oromo Liberation Front and the Aim of an Independent State of Oromia) (Secession or breakaway government; Ethiopia; 1973 to present). The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) was established in 1973 to lead what it described as the national liberation struggle of the Oromo from Abyssinian colonial domination.
29. Rhodesia, Unilateral Declaration of Independence of (Secession or breakaway government; Zimbabwe; 1965 to 1979). On 11 November 1965 the government of the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom.
30. Rwenzururu, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; Uganda; 1963 to 1982). The Rwenzururu movement arose in the 1960s in the Rwenzori region of Toro District in western Uganda as a protest by the minority Bakonzo and Baamba peoples against discrimination and their incorporation into the Batoro-dominated kingdom-district of Toro.
31. Sanwi, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; Côte d'Ivoire; 1959 to 1960). Sanwi is an Anyi kingdom in the extreme south-east of Ivory Coast, on the border with Ghana, whose leaders claimed separate statehood at the time of Ivorian independence.
32. Somaliland, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Somaliland; 1991 to present). The Republic of Somaliland, corresponding to the former British Somaliland Protectorate, became independent from the United Kingdom in June 1960 and on 1 July 1960 united with the former Italian-administered Trust Territory of Somalia to form the Somali Republic.
33. South Kasai, Mining State of (Secession or breakaway government; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1960 to 1962). The "Autonomous State of South Kasai" was proclaimed on 8 August 1960 by Albert Kalonji of the MNC-Kalonji, a month after the secession of Katanga, in the Kasai province that contains the Congo's diamond mines.
34. Southern Sudan, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; South Sudan; 1955 to 2011). The movement for southern self-rule in Sudan began on 18 August 1955, when the Equatoria Corps, a military unit composed of southerners, mutinied at Torit, some months before Sudan became independent on 1 January 1956.
35. Vugizo, Hutu Insurgent People's Republic of (Burundi, April 1972) (Secession or breakaway government; Burundi; 1972). On 29 April 1972 the government of Burundi ordered the execution of the former king Ntare III Ndizeye, and Hutu insurgents attacked the same day from Nyanza-Lac and Rumonge in the south, reaching Bujumbura in the west and Cankuzo in the east.
36. Zanzibar, People's Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Tanzania; 1964). The People's Republic of Zanzibar came into being on 12 January 1964, when African insurgents overthrew the Arab-led government of the island, about a month after Zanzibar became independent from Britain.

II.2. African Polities Resisting Colonial Conquest

1. Asante Empire, British Annexation of the (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Ghana; 1701 to 1902). The Asante kingdom, a confederation centred on Kumasi and ruled by the Asantehene, became a British protectorate in 1896, and the Asantehene Prempeh I was removed, first to Elmina, then to Freetown and then to the Seychelles.
2. Benin, Kingdom of, British Conquest of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Nigeria; 1180 to 1897). The Kingdom of Benin, ruled by its Oba from Benin City in what is now southern Nigeria, was invaded by Britain in 1897.
3. Bunyoro, Kingdom of, Resistance of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Uganda; 1870 to 1899). Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro, in what is now western Uganda, resisted British expansion from 1872, when he defeated the troops of Sir Samuel Baker, until the British declared war on him at the turn of 1893 and 1894.
4. Darfur, Sultanate of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Sudan; 1650 to 1916). The Sultanate of Darfur, in what is now western Sudan, was an independent kingdom under the Keira dynasty of the Fur for about three centuries.
5. Egba United Government (Abeokuta) (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Nigeria; 1830 to 1914). The Egba, a Yoruba people who left the territory of the collapsing Oyo empire, settled at Abeokuta, founded in 1830 under Sodeke.
6. Fante Confederacy (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Ghana; 1868 to 1873). The Fante Confederacy was formed in 1868 at Mankessim on the Gold Coast, uniting Fante states with others including Denkyira, Wassa, Twifo, Assin and Ahanta.
7. Griqua Captaincies (Griquatown, Philippolis and Griqualand East) (Polity resisting colonial conquest; South Africa; 1800 to 1880). The Griqua emerged in the eighteenth century from communities descended from the Kok and Barendse families, came under missionary influence from the 1790s, and in 1813 adopted the name Griqua together with a system of government by leaders styled kaptyns.
8. Harar, Emirate of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Ethiopia; 1647 to 1887). Harar, in the eastern highlands of present-day Ethiopia, re-established itself as an independent emirate in 1647 under Amir Ali ibn Da'ud, after more than a century of disruption that followed the wars of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi and the Oromo pressure that came after them.
9. Hottentot Republic (Polity resisting colonial conquest; South Africa; 1799 to 1803). Between 1799 and 1803 Khoikhoi herders and labourers on the eastern Cape frontier, joined by Xhosa allies at intervals, rose against the colonial administration under leaders including Klaas Stuurman, whose stated demand, recorded by contemporaries, was narrow and restorative rather than constitutional: restore the country of which their fathers had been despoiled by the Dutch, and the Khoikhoi would ask nothing more, since they had lived undisturbed before the Dutch molested them and could do so again if left to themselves.
10. Mahdist State of the Sudan (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Sudan; 1881 to 1899). The Mahdist State in the Sudan, which P. M. Holt dates from 1881 to 1898, was founded by Muhammad Ahmad, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi, and was continued after his death by the Khalifa Abdallahi.
11. Rif, Republic of the (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Morocco; 1921 to 1926). The Republic of the Rif was the state-building effort of the Rifian leaders under Abd el-Krim al-Khattabi in northern Morocco, then claimed by Spain, during the Rif War of 1920 to 1926.
12. Sokoto Caliphate, British Conquest of the (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Nigeria; 1804 to 1903). The Sokoto Caliphate, an Islamic state founded in the early nineteenth century by Usman dan Fodio and governed through a federation of emirates owing allegiance to the Sultan of Sokoto, lost its independence to British forces directed by Frederick Lugard, High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate.
13. Taalex (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Somalia; 1899 to 1920). Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, called the 'Mad Mullah' by the British, led from 1899 until 1920 a politico-religious movement of Somali dervishes that opposed British, Italian and Ethiopian expansion in the Horn of Africa.
14. Tripolitania, Republic of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Libya; 1918 to 1922). The Tripolitanian Republic (jumhuriyyah al-tarabulusiyyah) was proclaimed on 16 November 1918 by leaders of the Libyan resistance to Italy, as Ottoman authority collapsed at the end of the First World War.
15. Wassoulou Empire (Samory Toure) (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Guinea; 1878 to 1898). Samory Toure created the Wassoulou (Wassulu) Empire in the upper Niger region of West Africa in the last decades of the nineteenth century.
16. Witu, Sultanate of (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Kenya; 1858 to 1890). Witu, a small Swahili polity near the Tana River on the East African coast, first sought European protection against the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1867, when Sultan Ahmed Simba asked, through the traveller Richard Brenner, for a Prussian protectorate; Berlin ignored the request.
17. Yeke Kingdom of Garenganze (Msiri) (Polity resisting colonial conquest; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1856 to 1891). Msiri ruled the Yeke kingdom of Garenganze in southern Katanga from his capital at Bunkeya, where on 17 December 1891 he received the expedition that William Grant Stairs led on behalf of King Leopold II's Congo Free State.
18. Zulu Kingdom under Cetshwayo (Polity resisting colonial conquest; South Africa; 1872 to 1879). In 1877 the British government appointed Sir Bartle Frere High Commissioner for Southern Africa with the task of federating the British colonies and Boer republics, a policy that required control of Zululand.

II.3. Rival, Exile and Diaspora Governments

1. Angola, Democratic People's Republic of (FNLA-UNITA, 1975-1976) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Angola; 1975 to 1976). Portugal handed over authority in Angola on 11 November 1975 without recognising any of the three liberation movements, and rival governments appeared at once.
2. Congo, Rebel Administrations of the Second Congo War (RCD-Goma and the Congolese Liberation Movement, 1998 to 2003) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1998 to 2003). The Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) took up arms against the government of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in August 1998 as a coalition of Mobutist, anti-Kabila and reformist tendencies, and by May 1999 it had divided into a Goma faction, supported by Rwanda, and a Kisangani faction, which was reported to be backed by Uganda.
3. Congo, Stanleyville Governments of (Gizenga, 1960-1962, and the People's Republic of the Congo, 1964) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1960 to 1964). Antoine Gizenga, head of the African Solidarity Party, moved to Stanleyville on 13 November 1960 to form a national government in rivalry with the authorities in Leopoldville, presenting it as the successor to the government of Patrice Lumumba, which had been dismissed.
4. Cyrenaica, Council of (Barqa Declaration of 2012) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Libya; 2012 to present). On 6 March 2012 tribal and political leaders from eastern Libya meeting in Benghazi declared Cyrenaica a semi-autonomous region and named Ahmed Zubair al-Senussi, a relative of the former king and, according to Al Jazeera, Libya's longest-serving political prisoner under Gaddafi, as head of its governing council.
5. Libya, Rival Governments of (Benghazi, 2011; Tobruk and Tripoli, 2014; Sirte, 2022) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Libya; 2011 to present). During the 2011 uprising against Muammar Gaddafi, opposition forces established a National Council in Benghazi as an alternative administration, and on 10 March 2011 France became the first major European state to recognise it as the legitimate government and severed diplomatic ties with the Gaddafi government.
6. Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Western Sahara; 1976 to present). Spain's withdrawal from Western Sahara in 1975 followed a request by the United Nations General Assembly for an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice, which found on 16 October 1975 that the territory had not been terra nullius at colonisation, that legal ties of allegiance existed with Morocco and with a Mauritanian entity, and that none of those ties amounted to a claim of territorial title capable of displacing the right of the population to determine its future political status by freely expressed will.
7. Tasis Alliance and the Government of Peace and Unity (Sudan, 2025) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Sudan; 2025 to present). In February 2025 the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and allied political and armed groups, among them the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North led by Abdelaziz al-Hilu, signed a charter in Nairobi committing the signatories to a state structure described as "secular, democratic, non-centralised" under a unified military command.
8. Western Togoland (Homeland Study Group Foundation and Restoration Front) (Rival, exile or diaspora government; Ghana; 1956 to present). A movement in Ghana's Volta Region claims a separate territory that it calls Western Togoland and has twice been reported to have declared its independence.

III.1. South and Southeast Asia

1. Aceh, Free (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka) (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1976 to 2005). The Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, GAM) was launched on 4 December 1976 by Hasan di Tiro, a businessman and self-appointed envoy to the United Nations in New York for the Darul Islam movement, as the Acheh-Sumatra National Liberation Front.
2. Arakan (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1429 to 1785). The Arakanese kingdom centred on Mrauk-U fell to Burmese forces, a defeat that Rakhine nationalists still treat as a point of political reference.
3. Assam, Socialist State of (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1979 to present). The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) took up arms in Assam during the 1980s with the declared aim of establishing an independent socialist Assam, free of what it described as Delhi's colonial rule over the Brahmaputra valley.
4. Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Pakistan; 1947 to present). In October 1947, as the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir came under dispute, local leaders declared a government at Muzaffarabad on 24 October 1947 under Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan.
5. Badakhshan, Mirdom of (Secession or breakaway government; Afghanistan; 1657 to 1870). Badakhshan, in north-eastern Afghanistan, was ruled from the seventeenth century by a line of mirs known as the Yarid dynasty.
6. Baluchistan (Khanate of Kalat) (Secession or breakaway government; Pakistan; 1947 to 1948). The Khanate of Kalat was a princely state in what is now Pakistani Balochistan.
7. Bangladesh, Provisional Government of the People's Republic of (Mujibnagar Government) (Secession or breakaway government; Bangladesh; 1971). The Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, known as the Mujibnagar Government, was formed on 10 April 1971 during the Bangladesh liberation war.
8. Bangsamoro Republik (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1974 to present). The Bangsamoro Republik was proclaimed by Nur Misuari of the Moro National Liberation Front at a gathering in Talipao, Sulu, on 12 August 2013; GMA News recorded that the Philippine government ignored the act.
9. Biak-na-Bato, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1897). The Republic of Biak-na-Bato was the republican government that Emilio Aguinaldo and his companions maintained in 1897 at their mountain base at Biak-na-Bato, in the province of Bulacan, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain.
10. Chinland, Council of (Myanmar, from 2023) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 2023 to present). The Chinland Council was established at a conference held at Victoria Base from 4 to 7 December 2023, attended by 235 delegates from Chin State, neighbouring Chin communities and the diaspora.
11. Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Free (1954 to 1961) (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1954 to 1961). Portuguese rule in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, established between 1783 and 1785, ended on 2 August 1954, when volunteers of Goan parties acting with the local inhabitants ended Portuguese control.
12. Dega-Cham High Plateaus (FULRO) (Secession or breakaway government; Vietnam; 1964 to 1992). The Front Unifié de Lutte des Races Opprimées (FULRO) grew out of Bajaraka, the highland autonomy movement whose name comes from the first letters of the Bahnar, Jarai, Rhade and Koho peoples, and was expanded to include the Cham and Khmer Krom.
13. East Cambodia, Autonomous Zone of (Secession or breakaway government; Cambodia; 1993). After the royalist Funcinpec party won United Nations-supervised elections in May 1993, Prince Norodom Chakrapong, half-brother of the Funcinpec leader Prince Norodom Ranariddh, led a secession movement in eastern Cambodia in June 1993.
14. East Timor, Democratic Republic of (Fretilin Declaration) (Secession or breakaway government; Timor-Leste; 1975). Fretilin declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of East Timor on 28 November 1975, according to statements made at the United Nations Security Council, which China described as reflecting the people's aspirations for independence.
15. Freedomland, Free Territory of (Tomas Cloma) (Secession or breakaway government; Spratly Islands; 1956 to 1974). In 1956 Tomas Cloma, a Filipino maritime educator, made a "Notice to the World" claiming islands in the Spratlys and naming them "Freedomland".
16. Gilgit, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Pakistan; 1947). The Republic of Gilgit was proclaimed in the Gilgit Agency on 1 November 1947.
17. Ha Tien, Principality of the Mac Family (1708 to 1771) (Secession or breakaway government; Vietnam; 1708 to 1771). Ha Tien was a port principality ruled by the Mac family (Mo in Chinese), a Chinese family of Leizhou origin.
18. Heshun Kongsi of Monterado (West Borneo) (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1776 to 1854). The Heshun Zongting kongsi of Monterado, in western Borneo, was founded in 1776 by Chinese miners and was older and larger than the better-known Lanfang kongsi.
19. Hyderabad, State of (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to 1948). The princely state of Hyderabad, ruled by the Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, refused to accede to the new Indian union after 15 August 1947.
20. Indonesia, Islamic State of (Darul Islam) (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1949 to 1962). The Islamic State of Indonesia was established on 7 August 1949 by Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo, the leader of the Darul Islam movement.
21. Indonesia, Revolutionary Government of the Republic of (PRRI-Permesta) (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1958 to 1961). The Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) was proclaimed at Padang, in Sumatra, on 15 February 1958 by dissident leaders, with Sjafruddin Prawiranegara as prime minister.
22. Junagadh, State of (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to 1948). The Nawab of Junagadh, Muhammad Mahabat Khan III, ruling a coastal princely state on the Kathiawar peninsula with a Hindu-majority population under a Muslim dynasty, announced on 15 August 1947, on the advice of his Diwan Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, that Junagadh would accede to Pakistan rather than India, an accession Pakistan formally accepted on 13 September 1947 notwithstanding Junagadh's lack of any contiguous land border with Pakistani territory.
23. Kalimantan, Unitary State of North (Brunei Revolt) (Secession or breakaway government; Brunei; 1962). The North Kalimantan National Army (Tentera Nasional Kalimantan Utara, TNKU) was formed by the Brunei People's Party (Partai Rakyat Brunei) in mid-1961 as an underground force.
24. Kampuchea, Coalition Government of Democratic (1982 onwards) (Secession or breakaway government; Cambodia; 1982 to 1993). On 22 June 1982 Norodom Sihanouk, Son Sann and Khieu Samphan signed an agreement at Kuala Lumpur establishing the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea, uniting the Khmer Rouge with the two non-communist resistance movements of Sihanouk and Son Sann.
25. Karenni States (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1875 to 1948). The Karenni States, in the hill country of what is now Kayah State in eastern Myanmar, were never incorporated into British Burma.
26. Kawthoolei (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1949 to present). The Karen National Union (KNU), headed by Saw Ba U Gyi, began a movement for the independence of the Karen homeland, known as Kawthoolei, after Burma became independent from Britain on 4 January 1948.
27. Khalistan (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1986 to present). The Khalistan movement sought an independent Sikh state in the Indian province of Punjab.
28. Lanfang Kongsi Republic (West Borneo) (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1777 to 1884). The Lanfang kongsi was founded in 1777 in western Borneo by Luo Fangbo, a Hakka who married a Dayak woman.
29. Lao Issara (Free Lao Government, 1945 to 1949) (Secession or breakaway government; Laos; 1945 to 1949). The Lao Issara (Free Lao), led by Prince Phetsarath, declared Laotian independence from France on 1 September 1945 and established a provisional legislature on 12 October 1945.
30. Manipur, Kingdom of (Constitutional Period, 1947-1949) (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to 1949). Manipur, a princely state ruled by Maharaja Bodh Chandra Singh, adopted the Manipur State Constitution Act of 1947, which created a constitutional monarchy with a Legislative Assembly elected for three years on adult franchise and a Council of Ministers, consisting of a Chief Minister appointed by the Maharaja and six other ministers, who were collectively responsible to the Maharaja.
31. Mizoram, Sovereign Republic of (Mizo National Front) (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1966 to 1986). The Mizo National Front (MNF) began a rebellion against the Indian government on 28 February 1966 and, in the early hours of 1 March, declared the independence of the Mizo Hills district of Assam as Mizoram.
32. Mon State (New Mon State Party) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1958 to present). Mon ethnic resistance to central Burmese government authority, dating in organised armed form to 1949, consolidated institutionally with the founding of the New Mon State Party on 20 July 1958, which went on to build the Mon National Liberation Army as its military wing in pursuit of federalist autonomy for the Mon people of what is now Mon State, Kayin State and the Tanintharyi Region in southeastern Myanmar.
33. Moro Sultanates (Sulu and Maguindanao) (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1450 to 1915). The Moro sultanates of the southern Philippines comprised the Sultanate of Sulu, established around 1450, and the Sultanate of Maguindanao, founded in the Cotabato region in the early sixteenth century.
34. Myanmar, National Unity Government of (from 2021) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 2021 to present). The National Unity Government (NUG) of Myanmar was established in April 2021 by ousted members of the National League for Democracy, protest leaders and activists from several minority groups, as a parallel government opposed to the military administration that took power on 1 February 2021.
35. Nagaland, Federal Government of (Naga Independence) (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to present). The Naga National Council (NNC) declared the independence of the Naga Hills in August 1947, a declaration that the outside world ignored; Minority Rights Group International reports that the Nagas conducted their own plebiscite and declared independence again, and the South Asia Terrorism Portal reports a referendum in May 1951 in which the Council claimed 99 per cent support for independence, a result the Indian government never accepted.
36. Negros, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1898 to 1901). In November 1898, after the surrender of Spanish forces on Negros Island, local elites proclaimed the Gobierno Republicano Federal del Cantón de Isla de Negros, the Federal Republican Government of the Canton of Negros Island, with the planter Aniceto Lacson as president and Juan Araneta as delegate of war.
37. Parallel Governments of the Quit India Movement (Ballia, Tamluk and Satara, 1942 to 1946) (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1942 to 1946). During the Quit India Movement of 1942, Indian nationalists formed parallel governments in opposition to British authority in three areas.
38. Pashtunistan Movement (Secession or breakaway government; Pakistan; 1947 to present). The Pashtunistan movement originated in the Khudai Khidmatgar, or Red Shirt movement, founded in the North-West Frontier Province by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, known as Bacha Khan, which built a disciplined nonviolent Pashtun nationalist organisation in the 1930s and 1940s in alliance with the Indian National Congress.
39. Patani (Secession or breakaway government; Thailand; 1390 to 1902). Patani was a Malay Muslim sultanate on the northern Malay Peninsula that Siam annexed in 1902.
40. Philippines, First Republic of the (Malolos Republic) (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1899 to 1901). The Malolos Congress held its first regular session on 17 September 1898 under the presidency of Pedro A. Paterno, and on 29 September 1898 it ratified the Act of Proclamation of Independence of 12 June 1898.
41. Provisional Government of India (Kabul, 1915) (Secession or breakaway government; Afghanistan; 1915 to 1919). The Provisional Government of India, styled Hukumat-e-Mukhtar-e-Hind, was established in Kabul on 1 December 1915.
42. Shan State (Shan State Army) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1947 to present). The claim of the Shan State to a right of separate statehood rests on the constitutional settlement that followed the Panglong Conference of 1947.
43. Sikkim, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1642 to 1975). The Kingdom of Sikkim was a Himalayan state ruled by the Chogyal Palden Thondup Namgyal, who reigned from 1965 to 1982.
44. South Moluccas, Republic of the (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1950). The Republic of the South Moluccas was proclaimed on 25 April 1950 at Ambon by demobilised soldiers of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army and other South Moluccan leaders who opposed incorporation in the unitary Indonesian republic then taking shape from the United States of Indonesia, established in December 1949.
45. South Vietnam, Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of (1969 to 1976) (Secession or breakaway government; Vietnam; 1969 to 1976). The Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG) was established on 6 June 1969, according to a Vietnamese government history of the Paris negotiations, and ten days later it converted the delegation of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam at the Paris Conference into its own delegation, with Nguyen Thi Binh as its foreign minister.
46. Suvadive Republic, United (Secession or breakaway government; Maldives; 1959 to 1963). The United Suvadive Republic was a short-lived secessionist state in the southern atolls of the Maldives.
47. Ta'ang, PSLF and TNLA Administration of (Northern Shan State and Mogok, from 2024) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 2024 to present). The Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), which launched Operation 1027 with its partners on 27 October 2023, had taken 11 townships in northern Shan State and Mogok Township in Mandalay Region by January 2025.
48. Tagalog Republic (Macario Sakay) (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1902 to 1906). Macario Sakay, a Filipino revolutionary who continued to resist American forces after the end of the Philippine-American War was declared in 1902, led the Republika ng Katagalugan, or Tagalog Republic, with himself as president and Francisco Carreon as vice president.
49. Tamil Eelam (Secession or breakaway government; Sri Lanka; 1976 to 2009). Tamil Eelam was the independent state sought by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) for the Tamil-majority north and east of Sri Lanka.
50. Topasses (Secession or breakaway government; Timor-Leste; 1650 to 1769). The Topasses were a Catholic Eurasian community of the Solor archipelago and Timor, whose leading families, the Hornay and the da Costa, came to dominate much of Timor in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
51. Travancore, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to 1949). The princely state of Travancore, in the south-west of the Indian subcontinent, was the subject of an announcement on 11 June 1947 by its Diwan, Sir C. P. Ramaswami Aiyer, that it intended to remain independent of both India and Pakistan after the British withdrawal.
52. Tripuram (Secession or breakaway government; India; 1947 to 1949). Tripura, a former princely state in north-eastern India that borders Bangladesh, saw its tribal population fall from a majority to a minority in the twentieth century as Bengali refugees settled there.
53. Visayas, Federal State of the (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1898 to 1899). On 28 October 1898 Filipino revolutionaries under General Martin Delgado took control of the municipal building at Santa Barbara, Iloilo, and on 17 November 1898 a convention there set up a provisional government with Roque Lopez as president.
54. Wa State (Myanmar, 1989 to present) (Secession or breakaway government; Myanmar; 1989 to present). The United Wa State Party (UWSP) gives 17 April 1989 as the date of its establishment, following a coup against the headquarters of the Communist Party of Burma at Pangsang.
55. Zamboanga, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Philippines; 1899 to 1903). In May 1899 Filipino revolutionaries under Vicente Alvarez besieged the Spanish garrison of Fort Pilar at Zamboanga, which surrendered on 17 May 1899, according to the National Historical Commission's Independence Day website.

III.2. East Asia and Inner Asia

1. Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (Secession or breakaway government; Mongolia; 1911 to 1924). On 1 December 1911 Outer Mongolia in effect proclaimed its independence from the Qing, arguing that its allegiance had been owed to the Manchu dynasty and not to China.
2. Chinese Soviet Republic (Jiangxi Soviet) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1931 to 1937). The Chinese Soviet Republic was proclaimed on 7 November 1931 at Ruijin in Jiangxi province by the Chinese Communist Party, with Mao Zedong as chairman of its Central Executive Committee.
3. Dacheng Kingdom (Red Turban Regime in Guangxi, 1855 to 1861) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1855 to 1861). The Dacheng Kingdom was founded by Chen Kai and Li Wenmao, who launched a revolt at Foshan in Guangdong in 1854 and established the regime at Xunzhou in Guangxi.
4. Dali, Sultanate of (Pingnan Guo, Du Wenxiu, 1856 to 1873) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1856 to 1873). The Muslim rebellion in Yunnan, known as the Panthay Rebellion, began in the winter of 1855 and became a general rising in February 1856 under Imam Yusuf Ma and Ma Rulong.
5. East Turkestan Republics (First and Second) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1933 to 1949). Two short-lived republics claimed independence for the Turkic Muslim population of Xinjiang.
6. Eastern Mongolia (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1945 to 1947). In January 1946 Mongols in western Manchuria issued a proclamation announcing an East Mongolian People's Autonomous Government.
7. Ezo, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Japan; 1868 to 1869). The Republic of Ezo was proclaimed on 27 January 1869 on the island then known as Ezo, now Hokkaido, with Hakodate as its capital.
8. Formosa, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Taiwan; 1895). The Republic of Formosa was declared on 23 May 1895 after the Qing government ceded Taiwan to Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed on 17 April 1895.
9. Fujian People's Government (Nineteenth Route Army Rebellion, 1933 to 1934) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1933 to 1934). In November 1933 the commanders of the Nineteenth Route Army, including Cai Tingkai, together with the former Cantonese general Chen Mingshu, rose against the Nanking government of Chiang Kai-shek.
10. Guangzhou, Military Government of (Constitutional Protection Movement, 1917 to 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1917 to 1918). Sun Yat-sen launched the Constitutional Protection Movement in 1917 in opposition to the government of Duan Qirui in Beijing, which had refused to revive the Provisional Constitution and the National Assembly after the defeat of Zhang Xun's attempted restoration.
11. Hailufeng Soviet (Guangdong, 1927 to 1929) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1927 to 1929). Communist-led peasant forces took the county seat of Haifeng for a short time on 1 May 1927, and after a mutiny in a northern town in September a Communist takeover followed in the eastern Guangdong counties of Haifeng and Lufeng.
12. Hulunbuir, Autonomous Administration of (1912 to 1920) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1912 to 1920). After the collapse of Qing authority, the administration of Hulunbuir in north-eastern Inner Mongolia moved in 1912 towards Outer Mongolia, and the local administrator Shenfu received princely rank of the third degree, although disagreements arose between Hulunbuir's officials and the government of Outer Mongolia over the degree of direct control.
13. Inner Mongolian People's Republic (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1945). A provisional government of the Inner Mongolian People's Republic was declared in September 1945, with a constitution, after the collapse of the Japanese-sponsored Mengjiang administration in the Soviet and Mongolian invasion of August 1945.
14. Kashgaria, Emirate of (Yettishar) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1865 to 1877). Yaqub Beg, an adventurer from the Khanate of Kokand, took advantage of the Dungan Revolt against Qing rule to establish control over the Tarim Basin in what is now southern Xinjiang.
15. Korea, People's Republic of (1945 to 1946) (Secession or breakaway government; South Korea; 1945 to 1946). Following Japan's surrender in August 1945, the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence, led by Yo Un-hyung (Yeo Un-hyeong), and the People's Committees that appeared across the peninsula took over local administration before the Allied forces arrived.
16. Korea, Provisional Government of the Republic of (Shanghai and Chongqing, 1919 to 1945) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1919 to 1948). The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established on 11 April 1919 in the French Concession of Shanghai, in the weeks after the March First Independence Movement against Japanese rule.
17. Ochirbat's Yamen (Secession or breakaway government; Mongolia; 1932). Ochirbat's Yamen was the rival administration set up by insurgents in north-western Mongolia during the uprising of 1932 against the Mongolian People's Republic.
18. Republic of China on Taiwan (A Recognition Case) (Secession or breakaway government; Taiwan; 1949 to present). Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895, and after Japan's defeat in 1945 the government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek took over its administration.
19. Right River Soviet (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1929 to 1931). The Right River Soviet was a Communist-led base in the Zhuang districts of Guangxi (Kwangsi) in south-western China.
20. Ryukyu Kingdom, Annexation of (1879), and the Ryukyu Independence Movement (Secession or breakaway government; Japan; 1879 to present). The Ryukyu Kingdom concluded treaties with the United States in 1854, France in 1855 and the Netherlands in 1859, and Japan annexed it in 1879 in the measure known as the Ryukyu Shobun, which created Okinawa Prefecture.
21. Shanghai, Small Swords Administration of (1853 to 1855) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1853 to 1855). On 7 September 1853 members of the Small Swords Society, led by the Cantonese merchant Liu Liquan (also romanised Liu Lichuan), seized the walled Chinese city of Shanghai.
22. Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1851 to 1864). The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom arose from the Jintian Uprising of 11 January 1851 in Guangxi province, when Hong Xiuquan, a Hakka schoolteacher who had failed the imperial civil service examinations several times and had come to believe himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ, proclaimed himself Heavenly King of a new millenarian state.
23. Tibet (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1913 to 1950). On 13 February 1913, after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the withdrawal of Chinese imperial forces from Lhasa, the thirteenth Dalai Lama issued a proclamation asserting Tibet's independence.
24. Tunganistan (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1933 to 1934). Ma Zhongying (Ma Chung-ying), a Tungan (Hui) Muslim warlord, intervened in the Kumul Rebellion in Xinjiang and by May 1933 had broken the authority of the Nationalist-aligned provincial government across the western districts of the province.
25. Tungning, Kingdom of (Zheng Regime on Taiwan) (Secession or breakaway government; Taiwan; 1661 to 1683). Between 1661 and 1662 the Ming loyalist commander Zheng Chenggong, known in European sources as Koxinga, crossed to Taiwan with a force reported as 400 junks and 25,000 soldiers and defeated the Dutch at Fort Zeelandia, renaming the fortress Anping in honour of his Fujian home.
26. Ungern-Sternberg, Roman von, and the Seizure of Urga (1921) (Secession or breakaway government; Mongolia; 1921). Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, a Russian anti-Bolshevik commander, entered Mongolia in August 1920, claiming to revive the heritage of Genghis Khan and to build a pan-Mongol empire.
27. Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei (Northern Alliance of Tōhoku and Echigo Domains, 1868) (Secession or breakaway government; Japan; 1868). The Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei was a league of north-eastern domains formed in spring 1868, during the Boshin War, to resist the forces of the new imperial government and to obtain leniency for the Aizu and Shōnai domains.

III.3. The Middle East

1. Alawites, State of the (French Mandate Syria, 1920-1936) (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 1920 to 1936). The French High Commissioner organised the Territory of the Alawites by an order signed on 31 August 1920 and effective on 1 September 1920; from 1922 it was styled the State of the Alawites.
2. All-Palestine Government (Gaza, 1948) (Secession or breakaway government; Palestine; 1948 to 1959). On 30 September 1948 Ahmed Hilmi Pasha, styled premier of a new Palestine government with its seat at Gaza, notified the United Nations of the formation of an independent Arab state, the All-Palestine Government, which claimed the whole of Palestine within the boundaries that existed before the termination of the British Mandate.
3. Ansar al-Islam, Enclave of (Biyara and Tawela, Iraqi Kurdistan, from 2001) (Secession or breakaway government; Iraq; 2001 to 2003). Jund al-Islam emerged in September 2001 from a merger of the groups Hamas and Tawhid and, after military setbacks that autumn, came under the leadership of Najmuddin Faraj Ahmad, known as Mullah Krekar, who renamed it Ansar al-Islam; Human Rights Watch dates the new name to December 2001.
4. Ararat, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1927 to 1930). The Republic of Mount Ararat was a Kurdish state project in the borderland around Mount Ararat, in the years after 1926.
5. Asir, Idrisid Emirate of (to 1930) (Secession or breakaway government; Saudi Arabia; 1906 to 1930). The Idrisi family ruled Asir, on the Red Sea coast of Arabia, until 1926, when they accepted the suzerainty of Ibn Saud.
6. Bohtan, Emirate of (Buhtan) (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1400 to 1847). The Kurdish emirate of Bohtan, centred on Cizre in what is now south-eastern Türkiye, reached its height under Bedir Khan Beg, who came to power around 1821 and extended his control over the emirate.
7. Dhofar, Popular Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf (PFLOAG, 1965 to 1975) (Secession or breakaway government; Oman; 1965 to 1976). In 1965 the Dhofar Liberation Front began an armed uprising against Sultan Sa'id bin Taymur of Oman in the southern region of Dhofar.
8. Egypt, Beylicate of Ali Bey al-Kabir (c. 1768 to 1772) (Secession or breakaway government; Egypt; 1768 to 1772). Ali Bey al-Kabir led an Egyptian Mamluk challenge to Ottoman authority in the late 1760s and early 1770s.
9. Fatahland (PLO in South Lebanon, 1969 to 1982) (Secession or breakaway government; Lebanon; 1969 to 1982). The Cairo Agreement of 3 November 1969, concluded between Lebanese and Palestinian delegations headed by General Emile Bustani and Yasser Arafat, gave Palestinian commandos observation posts along the frontiers and a right of passage to the Arqub district, while stating that Lebanese authorities kept their authority over Lebanese territory under all circumstances.
10. Galilee, Emirate of Zahir al-Umar (Acre, c. 1730 to 1775) (Secession or breakaway government; Israel; 1730 to 1775). Zahir al-Umar ruled in Galilee in the eighteenth century, and his era is the subject of Ahmad Joudah's study of revolt in Palestine.
11. Hejaz, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; Saudi Arabia; 1916 to 1925). The Kingdom of Hejaz arose from the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule, in which Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca, was proclaimed "King of the Arabs" in Mecca on 29 October 1916.
12. Imamate of Oman (Jebel Akhdar War) (Secession or breakaway government; Oman; 1954 to 1959). After the Imam of Oman died in May 1954, Ghalib bin Ali was appointed his successor without the Sultan's involvement.
13. Islamic State, Caliphate of the (Iraq and Syria, 2014 to 2019) (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 2014 to 2019). On 29 June 2014 the Islamic State proclaimed a caliphate across territory in Iraq and Syria and named Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as caliph.
14. Jabal al-Druze, State of (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 1921 to 1936). The State of Jabal Druze was a territory of the French Mandate for Syria, centred on the Druze highlands of southern Syria.
15. Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922) (Secession or breakaway government; Iraq; 1922 to 1924). Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji was wounded fighting British forces in 1919, captured and tried in a military court in Baghdad, and sentenced to death, a sentence reduced to two years' imprisonment in a British fort in India.
16. Koçgiri, Rebellion and Autonomy Claims of (1920 to 1921) (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1920 to 1921). The Koçgiri tribal confederation of eastern Sivas, whose leaders included Haydar Bey and Alişan, rose against the Ankara government between 1920 and 1921 in a revolt whose declared aims were autonomy and independence for Kurdistan.
17. Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Independence Referendum and Bid of 2017 (Secession or breakaway government; Iraq; 2017). On 25 September 2017 the Kurdistan Regional Government held a referendum on separation from Iraq.
18. Mahabad, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Iran; 1946). The Republic of Mahabad was announced by Qazi Muhammad, leader of the Society for the Revival of Kurdistan, in the Iranian Kurdish town of Mahabad on 22 January 1946.
19. Mohammerah, Shaikhdom of (Khaz'al al-Ka'bi, 1897 to 1925) (Secession or breakaway government; Iran; 1897 to 1925). Khaz'al bin Jabir al-Ka'bi, chief of the Banu Ka'b, ruled Mohammerah (now Khorramshahr) in Khuzestan from 1897 to 1925 as a semi-independent shaikhdom, within the Qajar Persian state in name but in practice autonomous.
20. Mount Lebanon, Emirate of Fakhr al-Din II (1590s to 1635) (Secession or breakaway government; Lebanon; 1593 to 1635). Fakhr al-Din II, emir of the Druze house of Ma'n, became the head of his family in 1585, at the age of thirteen, after the killing of his father Qurqmaz, and in the following years restored its power in the mountain districts of Lebanon.
21. Palestine, State of (Declaration of Independence of 1988 and the Recognition Record) (Secession or breakaway government; Palestine; 1988 to present). On 15 November 1988 the Palestine National Council, meeting in Algiers, adopted a declaration proclaiming the establishment of the State of Palestine with Jerusalem as its capital, and the text invoked General Assembly resolution 181 (II) of 1947, which had provided for the partition of Palestine into an Arab and a Jewish state.
22. Pontus, Campaign for an Independent or Autonomous (1919 to 1920) (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1919 to 1920). In March 1919 the Pontic diaspora spokesmen Constantine Constantinides and Socrate Oeconomos wrote to the United States State Department arguing that Trabzon could not go to the Armenians and calling for a Pontus Republic.
23. Rojava (Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria) (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 2012 to present). The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, known by the Kurdish name Rojava, traces its origin, in the account of the Rojava Information Center, to 2012, when Kurdish-led forces, led by the People's Protection Units (YPG), established self-governing administration over Kurdish-majority districts of northern Syria after government forces withdrew.
24. South Arabia, State of, and the Southern Transitional Council (2017 to 2026) (Secession or breakaway government; Yemen; 2017 to 2026). The Southern Transitional Council was established in May 2017 as an umbrella body seeking to restore the independence that southern Yemen held between 1967 and 1990.
25. Suwayda (Jabal Bashan), Druze Self-Rule in (Syria, from 2025) (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 2025 to present). Fighting that began in Suwayda on 12 July 2025 after reciprocal kidnappings drew in the Syrian government on 14 July, and government forces withdrew on 16 July after Israeli strikes.
26. Syria, Kingdom of (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 1920). The Syrian National Congress, convened at Damascus by notables and officers who had served alongside Faisal ibn Hussein in the Arab Revolt, proclaimed the Kingdom of Syria independent on 8 March 1920 and proclaimed Faisal its king.
27. Syria, Salvation Government of (Idlib, from 2017) (Secession or breakaway government; Syria; 2017 to 2024). In November 2017 entities linked to Hayat Tahrir al-Sham were unified under the Syrian Salvation Government, which became, in the analysis of Munqeth Othman Agha of the Middle East Institute, the cornerstone of the group's centralised and technocratic governance model in Idlib Governorate.
28. Van, Armenian Provisional Administration of (1915) (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1915). Ruben Sahakyan records that Van was liberated in May 1915, when the Caucasian Army command formed an interim administration of Armenians headed by Aram Manukian, a prominent figure in the Armenian liberation movement.
29. Yemen, Democratic Republic of (1994 Southern Secession) (Secession or breakaway government; Yemen; 1994). Yemen's unification in 1990 left unresolved tensions between the northern and southern leaderships, and on 21 May 1994 southern leaders led by Vice President Ali Salim al-Bidh declared secession and proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Yemen, with Aden as its capital.

III.4. Australasia and the Pacific

1. Aboriginal Provisional Government (from 1990) (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 1990 to present). The Aboriginal Provisional Government was formed by Aboriginal people in Australia on 16 July 1990, and in 1994 Michael Mansell, a Tasmanian lawyer who then led it, published an account of its structure, purpose and strategies and of what the establishment of a state would mean for Aboriginal people.
2. Aboriginal Tent Embassy (Canberra, 1972 to Present) (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 1972 to present). On 26 January 1972 Billy Craigie, Tony Coorey, Michael Anderson and Bertie Williams set up the Aboriginal embassy under a beach umbrella at the front of Parliament House in Canberra, later Old Parliament House, to protest the government's position on land rights.
3. Aramoana, Independent State of (1980) (Secession or breakaway government; New Zealand; 1980 to present). On 23 December 1980 residents of Aramoana, a coastal settlement near Dunedin, declared their community an independent state in protest at a proposed aluminium smelter.
4. Banaba, Self-Government Campaign of (Secession or breakaway government; Kiribati; 1970 to present). The Banaban people were resettled from their phosphate-depleted home island of Ocean Island (Banaba) to Rabi Island in Fiji in December 1945.
5. Bougainville, Autonomous Region of (Secession or breakaway government; Papua New Guinea; 1988 to present). Bougainville's Revolutionary Army waged a civil war against Papua New Guinea from 1988 to 1998, triggered by local grievances over environmental damage and the distribution of revenue from the Panguna copper mine, a conflict that killed an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 people before a peace agreement in 2001 established the Autonomous Bougainville Government and committed Papua New Guinea to an independence referendum.
6. Euahlayi Peoples Republic (2013) (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 2013 to present). In August 2013 Ghillar Michael Anderson and members of his clan group proclaimed the Euahlayi Peoples Republic at Dirranbandi in Queensland, announcing its independence to the Queen, the United Nations and the media.
7. Franceville (Port Vila, 1889 to 1890) (Secession or breakaway government; Vanuatu; 1889 to 1890). Franceville was a settler commune at what is now Port Vila on Efate in the New Hebrides, which declared independence in 1889 while the islands were under joint Anglo-French administration, before the condominium of 1906.
8. Kanaki (Secession or breakaway government; New Caledonia; 1984 to present). The Kanaks, the indigenous Melanesian people of the French Pacific territory of New Caledonia, pressed for independence through the 1970s and 1980s, a period of violence between Kanak activists and French settlers that ended with the Matignon Accords of 1988.
9. Kotahitanga, Te (Māori Parliament, 1892 to 1902) (Secession or breakaway government; New Zealand; 1892 to 1902). Kotahitanga, meaning unity, was a movement that sought to unite the Māori tribes in a representative parliament of their own, and its first parliament met in 1892 in Hawke's Bay.
10. Kīngitanga, the Māori King Movement (Waikato, 1858) (Secession or breakaway government; New Zealand; 1858 to present). The Kīngitanga arose in 1858 to unite Māori tribes under a single king and to keep Māori land in Māori hands.
11. Lamb Island, Republic of Ngudurooistan (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 2013). In late 2013 Lamb Island, a Queensland island in Southern Moreton Bay with about 430 permanent residents, considered secession from Australia after the store manager Tony Gilson floated the idea and a tweet carried it into national news, with the name Republic of Ngudurooistan.
12. Leeward Islands, Resistance of Raiatea and Taha'a to French Annexation (1880 to 1897) (Secession or breakaway government; French Polynesia; 1880 to 1897). The Jarnac Convention of 1847 barred both France and Britain from taking control of the Leeward Islands of Huahine, Raiatea and Bora Bora.
13. Maasina Rule (Malaita, Solomon Islands) (Secession or breakaway government; Solomon Islands; 1944 to 1952). Maasina Rule began in 'Are'are, Malaita, in early 1944, when many Malaitans were serving in the wartime Labour Corps.
14. Murrawarri Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 2013 to present). In 2013 the Murrawarri Nation of northern New South Wales and southern Queensland declared itself an independent republic.
15. North Solomons, Republic of the (Bougainville Declarations of 1975 and 1990) (Secession or breakaway government; Papua New Guinea; 1975 to present). On 1 September 1975, ahead of Papua New Guinea's independence on 16 September, Bougainvillean leaders issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence of the Republic of North Solomons, led, according to the DADM project, by Leo Hannett and John Momis.
16. Pakumotu, Republic of (French Polynesia, from 2010) (Secession or breakaway government; French Polynesia; 2010 to present). On 19 January 2010 Beky Teamo and about 100 supporters met on Moorea and proclaimed a new state, citing the high cost of living and announcing 12 ministers, three senators and seven representatives.
17. Papua Besena (Papuan Separatist Movement from 1973) (Secession or breakaway government; Papua New Guinea; 1973 to present). Papua Besena, meaning Papua for the Papuans, was a movement led by Josephine Abaijah, the first woman elected to the House of Assembly of Papua New Guinea, whose central aim was a Papuan state separate from New Guinea.
18. Rotuma, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Fiji; 1987 to 1988). Rotuma, a Polynesian island north of Fiji's main islands, was ceded to Britain by its chiefs under a Deed of Cession in 1881 and was afterwards administered with Fiji.
19. Tanna, John Frum Self-Governance Movement (Secession or breakaway government; Vanuatu; 1930 to present). The John Frum movement on Tanna, in the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), began around 1940, when nocturnal meetings drew the attention of the British District Agent James Nichol and men reported a masked figure called John Frum.
20. United Tribes of New Zealand (Secession or breakaway government; New Zealand; 1835 to 1840). The United Tribes of New Zealand, also called the Confederation of United Tribes, arose from the efforts of the British Resident James Busby to give northern Māori chiefs a collective standing in the eyes of foreign powers.
21. Vemarana, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Vanuatu; 1980). Jimmy Stevens, the leader of the Nagriamel movement on Espiritu Santo in the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides, declared Santo independent on 27 December 1975 and again in August 1976, when Nagriamel issued its own silver currency.
22. West Papua, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Indonesia; 1961 to present). West Papua is the western half of the island of New Guinea, which the Netherlands retained as a separate colonial territory after recognising Indonesian independence in 1949.
23. Western Australia, Secession Movement of (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 1933 to present). The Dominion League, established in 1930, campaigned for Western Australia to leave the Australian Federation, citing the effects of federal policy on the state.
24. Western Samoa, Mau Movement and Parallel Administration (1927 to 1936) (Secession or breakaway government; Samoa; 1927 to 1936). The Mau movement, which began as the League of Samoa in March 1927, campaigned for self-government and an end to New Zealand's administration of Western Samoa under the slogan Samoa mo Samoa.
25. Western Solomons, Republic of the (Secession or breakaway government; Solomon Islands; 1975 to 1978). As the British Solomon Islands moved towards independence in the mid-1970s, the Western District discussed its future status in a new nation that many expected would be dominated by Malaita because of its population.
26. Yidindji Government (Murrumu Walubara Yidindji, Cairns, 2014) (Secession or breakaway government; Australia; 2014 to present). The Yidindji Government was declared in 2014 by Murrumu Walubara Yidindji, born Jeremy Geia, who renounced his Australian citizenship that year and returned his passport, health documents and driving licence.

IV.1. Western and Southern Europe

1. Alba, Republic of (1796) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1796). In April 1796, as Bonaparte's army entered Piedmont, the Jacobin writer Giovanni Antonio Ranza proclaimed a republic at Alba, announcing popular rule and an end to tyranny.
2. Alsace-Lorraine, Councils and National Council of (November 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; France; 1918). Following the abdication of Wilhelm II on 9 November 1918 and the armistice of 11 November, Alsace-Lorraine passed through an interval without settled authority, marked by revolutionary unrest, in which, according to an archival chronology, a Conseil national seated at Strasbourg and soldiers' councils administered the territory for a short time.
3. Anglo-Corsican Kingdom (1794-1796) (Secession or breakaway government; France; 1794 to 1796). Pasquale Paoli, who had led the Corsican Republic from 1755 to 1769, returned to the island under the French Revolution but broke with the Convention, which he came to regard as excessive, and was accused of counter-revolution and declared a traitor to the French Republic.
4. Bavaria, Räterepublik (Soviet Republic) of (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1919). The Bavarian Soviet Republic (Münchner Räterepublik) was proclaimed in Munich on 7 April 1919 by members of the Independent Social Democrats on the city's Central Council.
5. Bremen Soviet Republic (1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1919). On 10 January 1919 a mass demonstration organised by the German Communist Party in Bremen heard representatives of the Communists, the Independent Social Democrats and the soldiers' councils proclaim Bremen an independent socialist republic.
6. Canary Islands, Movement for the Self-Determination and Independence of the Archipelago (MPAIAC) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1964 to present). The lawyer Antonio Cubillo, born at La Laguna in Tenerife in 1930, founded the Movement for the Self-Determination and Independence of the Canarian Archipelago in Algiers on 22 October 1964, after a break with the Spanish Communist Party, with the aim of an independent socialist republic for the islands.
7. Carlist State (Carlos VII, 1872-1876) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1872 to 1876). During the Third Carlist War the pretender Carlos VII crossed into Spain on 2 May 1872; Carlist forces took Estella in Navarre in 1873, and the town became the administrative centre of what Manuel Martorell calls the Carlist State.
8. Cartagena, Canton of (Cantonal Rebellion of 1873) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1873 to 1874). In June 1873 Spain was declared a federal republic, and the naval base of Cartagena had already been unsettled by the mutiny of the frigate Almansa on 27 May 1873, when its crew shouted for a federal republic and against the officers' ranks.
9. Catalan Republic of 1931 and Catalan State of 1934 (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1931 to 1934). On 14 April 1931 Francesc Macià proclaimed a Catalan Republic in Barcelona, envisaging a future federation of Iberian peoples, before any republican declaration in Madrid.
10. Catalonia, Independence under Pau Claris and the Protection of Louis XIII (1641 to 1652) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1641 to 1652). In June 1640, during the rising known as the Corpus de Sang, harvest labourers (segadors) killed the viceroy, the Count of Santa Coloma, in Barcelona.
11. Catalonia, Republic of (Referendum and Declaration of 2017) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 2017). The Catalan government of Carles Puigdemont held a referendum on 1 October 2017 on the question "Do you want Catalonia to be an independent country?", after Spain's Constitutional Court had declared the vote illegal.
12. Corsican Republic (Secession or breakaway government; France; 1755 to 1769). The Corsican Republic was proclaimed in 1755 by Pasquale Paoli following the island's rebellion against Genoese rule, which had been contested since the 1730s, and it governed the interior of Corsica as an independent state for fourteen years while Genoa retained only a handful of coastal fortress towns.
13. Dithmarschen, Peasant Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1447 to 1559). Dithmarschen, a marshland district on the North Sea coast of Holstein, formed an autonomous peasant polity within the Holy Roman Empire.
14. Euzkadi (Basque Republic) (Secession or breakaway government; Spain; 1936 to 1937). The Basque Government was created on 7 October 1936, at the start of the Spanish Civil War, under the Statute of Autonomy approved that month, with the Christian democrat José Antonio Aguirre as its president.
15. Faeroe Islands, Republic of the (Secession or breakaway government; Faroe Islands; 1946). The Faroese claim to independent statehood arose from a referendum held on 14 September 1946, in which a narrow majority, 5,660 votes (50.7 per cent) to 5,499 (49.3 per cent), favoured secession from Denmark over the arrangement proposed by the Danish government; the margin was 161 votes and turnout was 67.5 per cent.
16. Ireland, Confederation of Kilkenny (1642 to 1649) (Secession or breakaway government; Ireland; 1642 to 1649). The Confederate Catholics organised after the rebellion began in Ulster in 1641; their General Assembly first met at Kilkenny in October 1642, and the confederacy took its name from the city.
17. Irish Republic (1919-1922) (Secession or breakaway government; Ireland; 1919 to 1922). The Irish Republic traced its legitimacy to the proclamation read outside Dublin's General Post Office during the Easter Rising of 1916, a rebellion crushed within a week whose surviving participants regrouped under Sinn Féin and won a majority of Irish parliamentary seats in the December 1918 general election.
18. Italian United Provinces (1831) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1831). In early February 1831 revolutions broke out in the Duchy of Modena, the Duchy of Parma and the Papal States.
19. Jura, Republic of the (Canton of Jura) (Secession or breakaway government; Switzerland; 1947 to 1979). The Jura movement sought a French-speaking canton separate from German-speaking, mainly Protestant Bern, to which the mostly Catholic Jura region had been attached since 1815.
20. Liège, Revolutionary Government of the Prince-Bishopric of (1789-1791) (Secession or breakaway government; Belgium; 1789 to 1791). The Prince-Bishopric of Liège entered revolution on 18 August 1789, after discontent with political and economic inequality and with the authoritarian rule of the prince-bishop, who fled to Trier with several dignitaries to seek the help of the emperor.
21. Lombardy, Provisional Government of (1848) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1848). A provisional government for Lombardy took office in Milan on 22 March 1848 under the moderate leader Count Gabrio Casati.
22. Monarchy of the North (Porto, 1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Portugal; 1919). On 19 January 1919 rebel troops at Porto proclaimed the restoration of the Portuguese monarchy, and other garrisons in northern Portugal soon followed.
23. Norway, Declaration of Independence and Constitution of 1814 (Secession or breakaway government; Norway; 1814). By the Treaty of Kiel of 14 January 1814 Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden.
24. Padania (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1996 to present). Padania was the name Umberto Bossi, leader of the regionalist party Lega Nord, gave to a loosely defined region of northern Italy for which he claimed independence.
25. Palatinate, Autonomous Government of the (1923-1924) (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1923 to 1924). In November 1923, in the French-occupied Palatinate, Franz Josef Heinz, who called himself Heinz-Orbis, proclaimed a government of an Autonomous Palatinate at Speyer, intended to operate within the "Rhenish Republic".
26. Roman Republic (1849) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1849). The second Roman Republic was proclaimed on 9 February 1849, four days after the Constituent Assembly convened, when the Assembly abolished the temporal power of the pope.
27. San Marco, Republic of (Venice, 1848-1849) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1848 to 1849). Daniele Manin was freed from prison, together with Niccolò Tommaseo, on 17 March 1848.
28. Schleswig-Holstein, Provisional Government of (1848) (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1848 to 1851). A provisional government for the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was proclaimed at Kiel in the night of 23 to 24 March 1848, with Wilhelm Hartwig Beseler as its president.
29. Scotland, Independence Referendum of 2014 and the Supreme Court Reference of 2022 (Secession or breakaway government; United Kingdom; 2014 to present). The Scottish independence referendum of 2014 produced a vote of 55 per cent to 45 per cent to remain in the United Kingdom.
30. Sicily, Kingdom of (1848 Revolution) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1848 to 1849). The Sicilian revolution began at Palermo in January 1848 and grew from a local uprising into the secession of the island from the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
31. Sicily, Movement for the Independence of (1943-1951) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1943 to 1951). The Movement for the Independence of Sicily arose in Sicily immediately after the Anglo-American occupation of July and August 1943.
32. Siena, Republic of, in Montalcino (1555 to 1559) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1555 to 1559). Siena, which had expelled its Spanish garrison with French help in 1552, surrendered to Cosimo I de' Medici on 17 April 1555 after a siege of more than a year.
33. Sonderbund (Secession or breakaway government; Switzerland; 1845 to 1847). The Sonderbund was a protective alliance founded on 11 December 1845 at Lucerne by seven Catholic-conservative cantons: Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Fribourg and Valais.
34. Toulon, Royalist Administration of (1793) (Secession or breakaway government; France; 1793). In August 1793 a royalist faction held the port of Toulon, and on 22 August French commissioners invited Vice-Admiral Hood to occupy the city in the name of Louis XVII, from fear of republican massacres of the kind that had occurred at Marseille.
35. United Belgian States (1790) (Secession or breakaway government; Belgium; 1790). The Brabant Revolution arose in the Austrian Netherlands in opposition to the enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II.
36. Vendée, Catholic and Royal Army and Supreme Council of the (1793) (Secession or breakaway government; France; 1793 to 1796). The rising in the Vendée began in March 1793 in resistance to the decree of 24 February 1793 that raised 300,000 men for the republican armies, with the first riots at Saint-Florent-le-Vieil.
37. Veneto, Venetian Most Serene Government and the Serenissimi (1996 to 1997) (Secession or breakaway government; Italy; 1997). The Veneto Serenissimo Governo declared the independence of Veneto on 24 August 1996, according to the newspaper Il Post.
38. Vorarlberg, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Austria; 1918 to 1919). On 3 November 1918, in the collapse of Austro-Hungarian authority, the provisional provincial assembly of the western Austrian province of Vorarlberg declared the province autonomous and part of German-Austria.

IV.2. Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans

1. Albania, Provisional Government of (Vlorë, 1912 to 1914) (Secession or breakaway government; Albania; 1912 to 1914). On 28 November 1912 the National Assembly meeting at Vlorë declared the independence of Albania and formed a Provisional Government, with Ismail Qemali as prime minister, who also held the foreign affairs portfolio.
2. Arad and Szeged, Counter-Revolutionary Governments of (1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Romania; 1919). On 6 May 1919, with French military support, a counter-revolutionary cabinet was formed at Arad under Count Gyula Károlyi as prime minister.
3. Baden and the Palatinate, Revolutionary Governments of (1849) (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1849). The Rastatt garrison mutinied on 9 May 1849, and on 13 May a popular assembly at Offenburg demanded recognition of the imperial constitution and a government under Lorenz Brentano.
4. Banat Republic (1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Romania; 1918 to 1919). As Hungarian authority dissolved in the autumn of 1918, the Southern Hungarian National Council and the Banat People's Council met at Temesvár (Timișoara) on 31 October 1918, and the latter proclaimed a Banat Republic.
5. Belorussian Democratic Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Belarus; 1918 to 1919). The Belarusian People's Republic, rendered in older English-language sources as the Belorussian Democratic Republic, was proclaimed at Minsk under German occupation, when its Executive Committee declared the republic on 9 March 1918.
6. Bukovina, Rival National Councils of (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1918). As Austro-Hungarian authority collapsed in October 1918, two rival national bodies laid claim to authority over the multi-ethnic crownland of Bukovina.
7. Carpatho-Ukraine (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1938 to 1939). Czechoslovakia granted autonomy to Subcarpathian Rus after the Munich Agreement of September 1938, and the Greek Catholic priest Avgustyn Voloshyn headed the executive of the autonomous region.
8. Central Albania, Republic of (Essad Pasha Toptani, 1914-1916) (Secession or breakaway government; Albania; 1914 to 1916). Essad Pasha Toptani, a large landowner of central Albania, set up a rival authority on 12 October 1913, when he created a Senate of Central Albania after his proposals for restructuring the provisional government of Ismail Qemali at Vlorë were rejected.
9. Central Lithuania, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Lithuania; 1920 to 1922). The Republic of Central Lithuania was proclaimed at Vilnius on 12 October 1920, three days after troops led by General Lucjan Żeligowski staged a mutiny and took the city from Lithuanian control.
10. Chios, Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1822). Chios, an eastern Aegean island whose merchant community prospered under Ottoman administration and which produced the mastic resin harvested nowhere else, was drawn into the Greek War of Independence on 11 March 1822, when some two thousand armed Greeks from neighbouring Samos landed at Karfas Bay under Lykourgos Logothetis and rallied much of the local population to the revolt.
11. Cieszyn Silesia, National Councils of (Teschen, 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Poland; 1918 to 1920). On 19 October 1918 local Polish party representatives founded the Polish National Council of the Duchy of Cieszyn.
12. German Bohemia and Sudetenland, Provinces of (1918-1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Czechia; 1918 to 1919). As the Habsburg monarchy dissolved in October 1918, German-speaking representatives from the Bohemian lands moved to detach their districts from the emerging Czechoslovak state and attach them to German-Austria.
13. Greece, Provisional Democratic Government of (1947-1949) (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1947 to 1949). On 24 December 1947 it was announced that General Markos Vafiadis, the Greek guerrilla leader, had proclaimed a Provisional Democratic Government in northern Greece.
14. Greece, Regional Governments of 1821 (Peloponnesian Senate, Senate of Western Continental Greece and Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece) (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1821 to 1823). Three regional governing bodies arose in Greece in 1821, in the first year of the War of Independence.
15. Herzeg-Bosna, Croatian Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Bosnia and Herzegovina; 1991 to 1994). The Croatian Community of Herceg-Bosna was proclaimed on 18 November 1991 by Bosnian Croat leaders as a political and territorial entity within the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
16. Hungarian Soviet Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Hungary; 1919). On 21 March 1919 a socialist-communist government under Béla Kun proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic.
17. Hungary, Declaration of Independence and Governor-Presidency of (1849) (Secession or breakaway government; Hungary; 1849). On 14 April 1849 the Hungarian Diet issued a declaration of independence that declared the House of Habsburg deposed and informed the civilised world of Hungary's independence, in the expectation that other nations would accept Hungary as "the youngest but not unworthy brother" among independent nations.
18. Hutsul Republic (1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1919). According to the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, a Hutsul force drove the Hungarian garrison from Yasinia on 7 January 1919 and, with a company of Sich Riflemen, occupied Sighet (Sighetu Marmației) between 14 and 16 January.
19. Ikaria, Free State of (1912) (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1912). In July 1912 inhabitants of the island of Ikaria rose against the Ottoman administration and declared the Free State of Ikaria.
20. Ilirida, Republic of (Western Macedonia, 1992) (Secession or breakaway government; North Macedonia; 1992 to present). In January 1992 ethnic Albanians in Macedonia voted in an unofficial referendum on territorial and political autonomy.
21. Korçë, Autonomous Province of (Secession or breakaway government; Albania; 1916 to 1920). French forces occupied Korçë in the autumn of 1916.
22. Kosovo, Republic of (Parallel State of the 1990s and Declaration of Independence of 2008) (Secession or breakaway government; Kosovo; 1990 to present). After Serbia revoked Kosovo's autonomous status within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1989, the province's ethnic Albanian political leadership held an unofficial referendum in September 1991 that returned a large majority for independence.
23. Kruševo Republic (1903) (Secession or breakaway government; North Macedonia; 1903). After the Ilinden Uprising of 1903 against Ottoman rule in Macedonia, a republic was set up at Kruševo that lasted ten days.
24. Lajtabánság (Leitha Banat, 1921) (Secession or breakaway government; Hungary; 1921). During the dispute over the transfer of western Hungary to Austria as the Burgenland, the paramilitary leader Pál Prónay proclaimed a state, Lajtabánság or Leitha Banat, at Felsőőr (Oberwart) on 4 October 1921 and served as its head (bán) and commander.
25. Lemko-Rusyn Republic and Komancza Republic (1918-1920) (Secession or breakaway government; Poland; 1918 to 1920). Two bodies styled republics appeared in the Lemko region of the western Carpathians in 1918.
26. Lithuania and Belorussia, Soviet Socialist Republic of (Litbel) (Secession or breakaway government; Lithuania; 1919). The Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, known as Litbel, was proclaimed at Vilnius on 27 February 1919 by a joint session of the central executive committees of the Soviet republics of Lithuania and Belorussia, which it merged.
27. Lusatia, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1945 to 1946). In the final months of the Second World War and its aftermath, Lusatian Sorb organisations pressed political claims against the background of the Allied settlement of Germany.
28. Makhnovshchina (Insurgent Territory of Southern Ukraine, 1918-1921) (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1918 to 1921). The Makhnovshchina was the region of south-eastern Ukraine around Hulyai Pole in which the anarchist Nestor Makhno and his insurgent army held military and political control during the Russian Civil War.
29. Mirdita, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Albania; 1921). The Republic of Mirdita was proclaimed in July 1921 in the name of Marka Gjoni, chieftain of the Catholic Mirdita region of northern Albania.
30. Münster, Anabaptist Kingdom of (1534 to 1535) (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1534 to 1535). Anabaptists won the Münster council elections on 23 February 1534 and, under threat of violence, expelled those of other faiths from the city.
31. Northern Epirus, Autonomous Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Albania; 1914). The autonomy of Northern Epirus was declared in February 1914, after the districts of Korçë and Gjirokastër had been placed within the Albanian state, with Georgios Christakis-Zografos as president of a provisional government.
32. Podgorica Assembly of 1918 and the Contested End of the Montenegrin Monarchy (Secession or breakaway government; Montenegro; 1918). The Great National Assembly of the Serb People in Montenegro met at Podgorica from 24 to 29 November 1918.
33. Poland, Provisional People's Government of the Republic of (Lublin, November 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Poland; 1918). A Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland was formed at Lublin on the night of 6 to 7 November 1918, with Ignacy Daszyński, leader of the Galician socialists, as premier.
34. Prekmurje (Mura) Republic (1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Slovenia; 1919). On 29 May 1919 Vilmos Tkálecz, a twenty-five-year-old former teacher and First World War veteran who had served as deputy people's commissar for the Vendvidék under the Hungarian Soviet Republic, proclaimed a Mura Republic (the Vend Republic in Hungarian usage) at Muraszombat (Murska Sobota).
35. Republika Srpska (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serb Republic of) (Secession or breakaway government; Bosnia and Herzegovina; 1992 to present). Republika Srpska was proclaimed by the Assembly of the Serbian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992 as the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and was renamed Republika Srpska on 12 August 1992.
36. Saxony, Social Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Germany; 1918 to 1919). On 10 November 1918 a United Revolutionary Workers' and Soldiers' Council at Dresden declared King Frederick Augustus III deposed and the monarchy abolished, and Hermann Fleissner of the Independent Social Democratic Party proclaimed the republic at the Circus Sarrasani in the Saxon capital.
37. Serbian Krajina, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Croatia; 1991 to 1995). The Republic of Serbian Krajina emerged from the Serb Autonomous Oblasts in Croatia during the break-up of Yugoslavia.
38. Serbian Vojvodina (1848-1849) (Secession or breakaway government; Serbia; 1848 to 1849). The May Assembly of the Serbs of the Habsburg lands met at Sremski Karlovci in May 1848.
39. Slovak People's Republic (Košice and Prešov, December 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Slovakia; 1918 to 1919). On 11 December 1918 a Slovak People's Republic was proclaimed in the town hall of Košice, in the weeks when Czechoslovak authority had not yet reached eastern Slovakia.
40. Slovak Soviet Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Slovakia; 1919). The Slovak Soviet Republic was proclaimed at Prešov on 16 June 1919 by the Czech communist Antonín Janoušek, under the sponsorship of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic, while Hungarian Red Army forces occupied parts of eastern Slovakia during the Hungarian-Czechoslovak War.
41. Tarnobrzeg, Republic of (1918-1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Poland; 1918 to 1919). After Austria-Hungary withdrew from Galicia in autumn 1918, committees managed the transfer of power to Poland, but peasants in four central districts attempted to build their own political order around the town of Tarnobrzeg, where thousands gathered every Wednesday.
42. Thessaloniki, Provisional Government of National Defence at (1916-1917) (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1916 to 1917). The Movement of National Defence was organised in August 1916 by Venizelist officers and citizens who sought to bring Greece into the war on the side of the Entente, and by October 1916 two Greek states coexisted, one at Athens under the king and one at Thessaloniki.
43. Ukrainian People's Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1917 to 1921). The Central Rada, a Ukrainian representative council formed at Kyiv in 1917 under the historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky, proclaimed Ukrainian autonomy by its First Universal of 23 June 1917.
44. Užice Republic (1941) (Secession or breakaway government; Serbia; 1941). In autumn 1941 Partisan forces held a liberated territory in western Serbia centred on the town of Užice, which the National Museum of Užice describes as the first large liberated territory in occupied Europe in that year.
45. Wallachia, Revolutionary Government of (1848) (Secession or breakaway government; Romania; 1848). In June 1848 a revolution in Wallachia produced a Provisional Government in Bucharest.
46. West Ukrainian People's Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1918 to 1919). The West Ukrainian People's Republic was a Ukrainian state in Galicia that emerged at the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918.
47. Western Bosnia, Autonomous Province of (Secession or breakaway government; Bosnia and Herzegovina; 1993 to 1995). The Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia was the political project of Fikret Abdić, a critic and rival of Alija Izetbegović, in the Cazin Krajina region of north-western Bosnia during the war of 1992 to 1995.
48. Western Thrace, Independent Government of (1913) (Secession or breakaway government; Greece; 1913). In 1913 an administration styled the Garbî Trakya Hükûmet-i Müstakilesi, the Independent Government of Western Thrace, was established with its centre at Gümülcine (Komotini).
49. Zaporozhian Host (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1550 to 1775). The Zaporozhian Host was a Cossack polity based at fortified encampments, or Sichs, beyond the Dnieper rapids.

IV.3. The Russian Civil War, the Caucasus and Siberia

1. Abkhaz Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Abkhazia; 1917 to 1921). Following the collapse of imperial authority in the Caucasus, the Congress of the Abkhaz People established the Abkhaz People's Council at Sukhum on 8 November 1917 and adopted a constitution and a declaration on self-determination; Simon Basaria was the first chairman of the Council.
2. Altai, Confederated Republic of (Karakorum Government) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918 to 1919). The Karakorum Government was an Altaian autonomous administration established in 1918.
3. Aras, Republic of (Aras Turkish Government, Nakhchivan, 1918 to 1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Azerbaijan; 1918 to 1919). The Aras Turkish Government (Aras-Türk Hükûmeti), also called the Aras Republic, was established at a meeting in the township of Kamerli on 18 November 1918, with Iğdır as its centre.
4. Armenia, First Republic of (1918 to 1920) (Secession or breakaway government; Armenia; 1918 to 1920). An independent Armenian republic was declared in May 1918.
5. Azerbaijan, Democratic Republic of (1918 to 1920) (Secession or breakaway government; Azerbaijan; 1918 to 1920). On 28 May 1918 the National Council of Azerbaijan adopted the Declaration of Independence, and on 17 June 1918 it suspended its activities and transferred legislative and executive authority to the Provisional Government headed by Fatali Khan Khoyski.
6. Bashkir Autonomy and the Bashkir Government (1917-1919) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1917 to 1919). The Bashkir national movement, led by Akhmet-Zaki Validov, proclaimed territorial autonomy within weeks of the Bolshevik seizure of power.
7. Buryatia, State of (Burnatskom and the Pan-Mongolist Movement) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1917 to 1921). After the February Revolution Buryat political leaders formed the Central National Committee of Buryat-Mongols of Eastern Siberia, known by its Russian abbreviation Burnatskom (Burnatcom), created by the First All-Buryat Congress on 25 April 1917.
8. Crimean People's Republic (1917-1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Crimea; 1917 to 1918). The Crimean People's Republic grew out of the Crimean Tatar national movement in the year of the Russian revolutions.
9. Don Republic (Great Don Host) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1917 to 1918). The Don Cossack Republic was proclaimed in 1918 by the Don Cossacks in south Russia.
10. Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Ukraine; 1918). The Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic was proclaimed in February 1918 over the industrial region of the Donbas, with Kharkiv as its capital and Fyodor Sergeyev, known as Artem, as chairman of its Council of People's Commissars.
11. Far Eastern Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1920 to 1922). The Far Eastern Republic was created under Bolshevik leadership in the Russian Far East and existed from 6 April 1920 to 14 November 1922, according to the editorial notes to Lenin's collected works.
12. Georgia, Democratic Republic of (1918 to 1921) (Secession or breakaway government; Georgia; 1918 to 1921). On 26 May 1918 the National Council of Georgia, elected at a national congress in Tbilisi on 19 November 1917, issued the Act of Independence, and the new republic was led by Noe Jordania.
13. Idel-Ural State (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1917 to 1918). The Idel-Ural State was declared in 1917 by representatives of the Tatar, Bashkir and Chuvash peoples together with neighbouring Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga-Ural region, and its National Assembly (Millet Mejlisi) organised the institutions of the new state in the collapse of imperial Russian authority that followed the October Revolution.
14. Ingria, Republic of (North Ingria) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1919 to 1920). The Republic of North Ingria was proclaimed in July 1919 by Ingrian Finnish insurgents who had risen against Bolshevik rule in the Finnish-speaking districts of Petrograd province, close to the Finnish border.
15. Kalmykia, Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1990 to present). On 18 October 1990, amid a wave of similar declarations by constituent republics of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Soviet of the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic adopted a Declaration of State Sovereignty.
16. Karelia, Republic of (Uhtua) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1920). A congress of 118 delegates from eleven parishes met at Uhtua (now Kalevala) from 21 to 29 March 1920 and, on 27 March, announced the independence of Karelia.
17. Komuch (Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, Samara, 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918). The Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly, known by the acronym Komuch, took shape in Samara after the Czechoslovak Legion captured the city on 8 June 1918, and its organisers included B. K. Fortunatov, P. D. Klimushkin, I. M. Brushvit, V. K. Volsky and I. P. Nesterov.
18. Kuban People's Republic (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918). According to Babel.ua, the Kuban People's Republic declared its independence from Russia on 16 February 1918, having first sought regional autonomy within a federated Russian state; its parliamentary government rested on a Kuban Legislative Rada that elected both a civilian government and an ataman as military commander-in-chief, with its capital at Yekaterinodar.
19. Moldavian Democratic Republic (Sfatul Țării, 1917 to 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Moldova; 1917 to 1918). Sfatul Țării, the National Council of Bessarabia, was inaugurated in Chișinău on 21 November 1917 as a provisional legislative body, with 150 deputies planned, of whom 105 (70 per cent) were to be Moldovans.
20. Mountain Republic (Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918 to 1920). The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was proclaimed in May 1918 as a state intended to unite the Muslim highland peoples of the North Caucasus, among them Chechens, Ingush, Dagestanis, Kabardians, Ossetians, Karachays and Balkars, after the dissolution of the Russian Empire.
21. Mountainous Armenia, Republic of (Syunik) (Secession or breakaway government; Armenia; 1920 to 1921). After Armenia's capitulation to Bolshevik forces in late 1920, Garegin Nzhdeh refused to accept the proposed transfer of Syunik and Nagorno-Karabakh to Soviet Azerbaijan, and on 25 December 1920 he declared Syunik a self-governing territory.
22. North Caucasian Emirate (Uzun Haji) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1919 to 1920). The Naqshbandi preacher Uzun Haji Saltinsky, who had fought against General Denikin's Volunteer Army, declared a gazawat, or holy war, in 1919 and founded a North Caucasian Emirate with its capital at the Chechen settlement of Vedeno, under his own religious authority.
23. Northern Region, Supreme Administration of the (Archangel, 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918 to 1920). On 2 August 1918, after Allied forces occupied Archangel, a new authority announced the overthrow of Soviet power in the northern region.
24. Priamurye, Provisional Government of (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1921 to 1922). The Provisional Priamurye Government was established at Vladivostok in May 1921, after a coup by remnants of General Vladimir Kappel's defeated White army, the Kappelevtsy, and was intended to sever the maritime province from the Far Eastern Republic and to renew anti-Soviet resistance under the protection of Japanese occupation forces.
25. Russian Far East, Provisional Government of (Horvath) (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1918). General Dmitry Horvath, who had headed the Chinese Eastern Railway administration in Harbin since 1902, proclaimed himself temporary ruler of the Russian Far East on 9 July 1918, asserting that he was the remaining legitimate representative of Russia's overthrown Provisional Government, and formed a Business Cabinet under V. S. Orientin.
26. Siberia, Provisional Government of (Omsk, 1918) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1918). The Provisional Siberian Government was constituted at Omsk on 30 June 1918 under the chairmanship of Pyotr Vologodsky, its formation made possible by the revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion in the spring of 1918 against Bolshevik authority.
27. South-East Union of Cossack Hosts, Mountain Peoples and Free Steppe Peoples (1917) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1917 to 1918). On 20 October 1917 the Don, Kuban, Terek and Astrakhan Cossack hosts concluded a union treaty with the mountain peoples of the Caucasus, among them the Dagestanis, Circassians and Abkhazians, and with the free peoples of the steppe.
28. South-West Caucasian Republic (Kars Islamic Republic) (Secession or breakaway government; Türkiye; 1918 to 1919). After the Ottoman army withdrew from the Kars region at the close of the First World War, local Muslim notables under Cihangirzade İbrahim Bey organised a Kars Islamic Council on 5 November 1918.
29. Transcaucasia, Democratic Federative Republic of (Secession or breakaway government; Georgia; 1918). The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was proclaimed on 22 April 1918 by resolution of the Transcaucasian Seim, the regional assembly at Tiflis in which Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani political parties sat, after the collapse of Russian authority in the south Caucasus.
30. Tungus Republic (Provisional Central Tungus National Government) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1924 to 1925). The Tungus Republic was a separatist movement on the Okhotsk coast, within the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, formed in a rebellion against Soviet rule in 1924 and 1925.
31. Ubykhs (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; undated). The Ubykhs were a north-west Caucasian people of the Black Sea coast who resisted Russian conquest until 1864.
32. Ural Cossack Host and the Independent Ural Army (1917-1920) (Secession or breakaway government; Kazakhstan; 1917 to 1920). The Ural Cossacks began to resist Bolshevik rule after October 1917, refused Soviet orders to disarm and fought armed clashes with Red forces through late 1917 and early 1918.

IV.4. Central Asia

1. Alash Autonomy (Secession or breakaway government; Kazakhstan; 1917 to 1920). The Alash Autonomy was a Kazakh national government proclaimed in December 1917 under the leadership of the Alash party.
2. Bukhara, Emirate of (Secession or breakaway government; Uzbekistan; 1868 to 1920). The emirate of Bukhara, ruled by the Manghit dynasty, was conquered by Russia in 1868, in the reign of Amir Muzaffar al-Din (1860 to 1885), and its rulers became vassals of the Russian empire.
3. Gorno-Badakhshan, Autonomous Republic of (Tajikistan, 1991 to 1994) (Secession or breakaway government; Tajikistan; 1991 to 1994). The Autonomous Republic of Badakhshan was a Pamiri political formation created in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan after the break-up of the Soviet Union.
4. Ili, Taranchi Sultanate of (Secession or breakaway government; China; 1864 to 1871). The Taranchi sultanate of Ili was a Muslim state set up in the Ili valley of northern Xinjiang during the rebellion against Qing rule.
5. Karakalpakstan, Republic of (Constitutional Right to Secede and the Unrest of 2022) (Secession or breakaway government; Uzbekistan; 1993 to present). Karakalpakstan is an autonomous republic within Uzbekistan.
6. Khiva, Khanate of (Russian Protectorate Period) (Secession or breakaway government; Uzbekistan; 1873 to 1920). The khanate of Khiva, ruled by the Qongrat dynasty, became a Russian dependency in 1873.
7. Kobdo (Secession or breakaway government; Mongolia; 1912 to 1914). Kobdo, a district of western Mongolia populated chiefly by Oirat Mongols distinct from the Khalkha majority elsewhere in the country, became the base of the self-styled lama and warlord Dambijantsan, known as Ja Lama, who presented himself as an incarnation of the legendary hero Amursana and led Oirat forces against Chinese garrisons in 1912.
8. Tannu Tuva (Tuvan People's Republic) (Secession or breakaway government; Russia; 1921 to 1944). The Tuvan People's Republic, in Tannu Tuva between Siberia and Mongolia, declared independence on 14 August 1921 and existed under the patronage of Soviet Russia.
9. Transcaspian Government (Secession or breakaway government; Turkmenistan; 1918 to 1920). The Transcaspian Government, known also as the Ashkhabad Committee, was an anti-Bolshevik administration set up at Ashkhabad in Russian Turkestan in July 1918.
10. Turkestan Autonomy (Kokand Autonomy) (Secession or breakaway government; Uzbekistan; 1917 to 1918). The Turkestan Autonomy was proclaimed at Kokand, in the Ferghana Valley, in the last days of November 1917 by the Fourth Extraordinary Congress of Muslims of Turkestan.

V.1. The Voortrekker Republics

1. Graaff-Reinet, Republic of (Settler republic; South Africa; 1795 to 1796). The district of Graaff-Reinet, on the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony, repudiated the authority of the Dutch East India Company in February 1795, expelling the resident Company landdrost and installing a locally elected National Assembly under Marthinus Prinsloo.
2. Klip River, Republic of (1847) (Settler republic; South Africa; 1847 to 1848). Boer settlers in the Klip River district of northern Natal, led by Andries T. Spies, claimed in 1847 the land between the Thukela and Mzinyathi rivers and the Drakensberg under a treaty with the Zulu king Mpande, signed around 1 to 4 May 1847 and backdated to 7 January.
3. Klipdrift Republic (Settler republic; South Africa; 1870 to 1871). The Klipdrift Republic, also called the Diggers' Republic, was proclaimed in 1870 at the Vaal River diamond diggings by British and other immigrant diggers who opposed the Transvaal's claim to the diamond fields.
4. Natal, Republic of (Settler republic; South Africa; 1838 to 1843). The Republic of Natalia was established by Voortrekkers in Natal after their victory over the Zulu king Dingane at the Battle of Blood River in December 1838, under the command of Andries Pretorius.
5. New Republic (Vryheid) (Settler republic; South Africa; 1884 to 1888). The New Republic (Nieuwe Republiek) was a Boer state formed in 1884 in Zululand.
6. Rehoboth, Baster Self-Government of (Settler republic; Namibia; 1872 to 1990). The Basters of Rehoboth, a community that left the Cape Colony and settled at Rehoboth in what is now central Namibia around 1871, promulgated a constitution, the Paternal Laws (Vaderlike Wette), in January 1872.
7. Stellaland (Settler republic; South Africa; 1882 to 1885). Stellaland and Goshen were Boer republics established on the western border of the Transvaal, in Bechuanaland.
8. Upingtonia (Settler republic; Namibia; 1885 to 1887). Upingtonia was a short-lived republic of Boer trekkers in the Grootfontein district of what is now northern Namibia.
9. Utrecht, Republic of (Settler republic; South Africa; 1854 to 1858). The Republic of Utrecht was a Boer polity formed in 1854 in the Buffalo River district of northern Natal.
10. Zoutpansberg (Settler republic; South Africa; 1848 to 1867). Zoutpansberg was a Voortrekker settlement in the northern Transvaal.

V.2. Post-Soviet De Facto States

1. Abkhazia (post-1992) (Post-Soviet de facto state; Abkhazia; 1992 to present). Abkhazia, on the Black Sea coast of Georgia, has been governed by authorities who claim independence since the war of 1992 to 1993.
2. Chechnya (Ichkeria) (Post-Soviet de facto state; Russia; 1991 to 2000). The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria emerged in 1991 under Dzhokhar Dudayev, a former Soviet general.
3. Crimea, Republic of (1992-1995) (Post-Soviet de facto state; Crimea; 1992 to 1995). Between 1992 and 1995 the Crimean peninsula, an autonomous republic within Ukraine, was governed under a Crimean constitution adopted in 1992.
4. Dagestan, Islamic State of (Post-Soviet de facto state; Russia; 1999). On 10 August 1999 a council of Islamist leaders declared an independent Islamic state in Dagestan, a republic of the Russian Federation.
5. Donetsk People's Republic (Post-Soviet de facto state; Ukraine; 2014 to 2022). The Donetsk People's Republic originated on 7 April 2014, when pro-Russian activists occupying the regional administration building in Donetsk announced the creation of a People's Republic of Donetsk independent of Kyiv, promised a referendum on the region's status by 11 May, and appealed for Russian assistance in the weeks after Russia's annexation of Crimea.
6. Gagauzia (Post-Soviet de facto state; Moldova; 1990 to present). The Gagauz, a Christianised Turkic-speaking people of southern Moldova, responded in 1990 to Moldova's moves towards independence from the Soviet Union when authorities in Komrat announced a Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic.
7. Luhansk People's Republic (Post-Soviet de facto state; Ukraine; 2014 to 2022). The Luhansk People's Republic was proclaimed on 28 April 2014 by armed activists, after militants had seized the local state security headquarters in April and a gathering on 21 April had acclaimed a leadership; Valery Bolotov, a veteran of the Union of Paratroopers of Luhansk Oblast, became the first head, and analysts quoted by RFE/RL described his governing circle as a military junta.
8. Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh, standalone) (Post-Soviet de facto state; Azerbaijan; 1991 to 2023). Nagorno-Karabakh was an autonomous oblast of Soviet Azerbaijan with a majority ethnic Armenian population.
9. Novorossiya, Union of People's Republics (Post-Soviet de facto state; Ukraine; 2014 to 2015). In a televised question-and-answer session on 17 April 2014, Vladimir Putin used the name Novorossiya for Kharkov, Lugansk, Donetsk, Kherson, Nikolayev and Odessa, which he said had not been part of Ukraine in tsarist times and had been given to it by the Soviet government in the 1920s.
10. South Ossetian Democratic Republic (Post-Soviet de facto state; Georgia; 1990 to present). South Ossetian nationalists declared independence from Georgia on 20 September 1990.
11. Talysh-Mugan Autonomous Republic (Post-Soviet de facto state; Azerbaijan; 1993). The Talysh-Mugan Autonomous Republic, also rendered Talysh-Mughan, was proclaimed in June 1993 by Alikram Gumbatov (Hummatov) on the south-eastern border of Azerbaijan with Iran.
12. Tatarstan, Sovereign State of (Post-Soviet de facto state; Russia; 1990 to 1994). Tatarstan, an autonomous republic of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic with a large Volga Tatar population, adopted its Declaration of State Sovereignty in August 1990 under Mintimer Shaimiev.
13. Trans-Dniestr Republic (Post-Soviet de facto state; Moldova; 1990 to present). The self-styled "Moldovan Republic of Transdniestria" was proclaimed on 2 September 1990 in the territory of Moldova east of the Dniester.
14. Urals Republic (Sverdlovsk Oblast, 1993) (Post-Soviet de facto state; Russia; 1993). According to The Moscow Times, Eduard Rossel, governor of Sverdlovsk Oblast, declared in 1993 that the region would become the Urals Republic and draft its own constitution; he and his advisers said that the step would not undermine Russia's territorial integrity.

V.3. Instigated Client and Puppet States

1. Anconine Republic (Ancona, 1797-1798) (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1797 to 1798). The Anconine Republic was one of the Jacobin republics that arose at Ancona in the French campaigns in Italy of 1796 to 1798.
2. Azad Hind, Provisional Government of Free India (Client or puppet state; Singapore; 1943 to 1945). Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) on 21 October 1943 at the Cathay building in Singapore, then under Japanese occupation, after Rash Behari Bose handed over leadership of the Indian National Army to him.
3. Azerbaijan, Autonomous Government of (Client or puppet state; Iran; 1945 to 1946). The Azerbaijan People's Government announced its autonomy at Tabriz on 12 December 1945, under Ja'far Pishevari and the Azerbaijan Democratic Party, which had been formed in early September 1945.
4. Bantustans (Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, Venda, KwaZulu) (Client or puppet state; South Africa; 1976 to 1994). The Bantustans, or homelands, were territories set aside by the South African government under its apartheid policy for the African population.
5. Batavian Republic (Client or puppet state; Netherlands; 1795 to 1806). The Batavian Republic was the Dutch state that replaced the Dutch Republic after the French invasion and the Batavian revolution of 1795.
6. Bergamasque Republic (Bergamo, 1797) (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1797). Bergamo declared itself free of Venetian rule on 12 and 13 March 1797 and was the first of the Venetian provinces to do so.
7. Bresciana Republic (Brescia, 1797) (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1797). Brescia underwent a revolution in March 1797 during the Triennio repubblicano, after which a republican government came to power in the city.
8. Burma, State of (Ba Maw Government, 1943 to 1945) (Client or puppet state; Myanmar; 1943 to 1945). On 1 August 1943 an administration led by Ba Maw declared independence in Japanese-occupied Burma.
9. Cisalpine Republic (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1797 to 1802). The Cisalpine Republic was proclaimed on 29 June 1797 over Lombardy, Reggio and Modena, and Napoleon Bonaparte named its four Directors that day.
10. Cispadane Republic (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1796 to 1797). At a congress of about 100 delegates at Modena on 16 and 17 October 1796, the constitution of the Cispadane Republic was voted and provisional governments were named for Reggio, Modena, Bologna and Ferrara.
11. Cochinchina, Republic of (Client or puppet state; Vietnam; 1946 to 1949). France, seeking to detach southern Vietnam from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam of Ho Chi Minh, sponsored the Republic of Cochinchina.
12. Crimean Regional Government (Sulkevich Government, 1918) (Client or puppet state; Crimea; 1918). According to the portal Crimea is Ukraine, supported by the Ukrainian state, the German commander General R. Kosch appointed Suleyman Sulkevich prime minister on 5 June 1918 and tasked him with forming a regional government.
13. Croatia, Independent State of (Client or puppet state; Croatia; 1941 to 1945). The Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska) was proclaimed on 10 April 1941 by the Ustase movement, after Germany and its Axis allies had invaded and dismembered Yugoslavia, and Germany and Italy endorsed it.
14. East Hebei Autonomous Government (1935 to 1938) (Client or puppet state; China; 1935 to 1938). The East Hebei Anti-Communist Autonomous Council was established on 24 November 1935 at Tongzhou, in the eastern part of Hebei province, under Yin Rugeng (Yin Ju-keng), a former Nationalist official backed by Japan, who declared independence from the Nationalist government.
15. East Indonesia, State of, and the Dutch-Sponsored Federal States (1946 to 1950) (Client or puppet state; Indonesia; 1946 to 1950). The Denpasar Conference, held in Bali from 7 to 23 December 1946 under the chairmanship of the Dutch official Van Mook, led to the proclamation of the State of East Indonesia on 24 December 1946; it covered the former Groote Oost except western New Guinea.
16. Estonian Workers' Commune (Narva, 1918-1919) (Client or puppet state; Estonia; 1918 to 1919). The Temporary Revolutionary Committee of Estonia proclaimed the Estonian Workers' Commune at Narva on 29 November 1918, with Jaan Anvelt as its leader.
17. Finland, Terijoki Government of (Finnish People's Government, 1939 to 1940) (Client or puppet state; Russia; 1939 to 1940). The Finnish People's Government, led by O. V. Kuusinen and based at Terijoki (now Zelenogorsk), signed a treaty of mutual assistance and friendship with the Soviet Union on 2 December 1939, with Molotov signing for the Soviet side.
18. Flanders, Council of (Client or puppet state; Belgium; 1917 to 1918). The Council of Flanders was constituted on 4 February 1917 in German-occupied Belgium, when a Flemish-nationalist assembly proclaimed its founding and chose its members.
19. Free Lebanon, State of (1979 to 1984) (Client or puppet state; Lebanon; 1979 to 1984). In April 1979 Major Saad Haddad, who commanded about 700 men at Marjayoun and had joined the Lebanese Liberation Army in March 1976, proclaimed a 'State of Free Lebanon' from Metulla in Israel.
20. German Client States of the Eastern Front (1917-1918) (Client or puppet state; Lithuania; 1917 to 1918). Imperial Germany sponsored a number of states described as independent in the east during the last two years of the First World War.
21. Gilan, Soviet Republic of (Client or puppet state; Iran; 1920 to 1921). The Soviet Republic of Gilan, also called the Persian Socialist Soviet Republic, took shape in northern Iran after Soviet forces arrived at Anzali on 18 May 1920.
22. Helvetic Republic (Client or puppet state; Switzerland; 1798 to 1803). The Helvetic Republic replaced the old Swiss Confederation on 12 April 1798, when its constitution took effect, after French troops had advanced into Switzerland from late January 1798 and ended the Confederation in the fighting of early March.
23. Italian Social Republic (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1943 to 1945). The Italian Social Republic, known also as the Republic of Salò after the town on Lake Garda chosen as its capital, was proclaimed on 23 September 1943, the day on which the Republican Fascist Party was founded to replace the National Fascist Party.
24. Latvia, Socialist Soviet Republic of (1918 to 1920) (Client or puppet state; Latvia; 1918 to 1920). The Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was declared on 17 December 1918, and Soviet Russia recognised it on 22 December.
25. Ligurian Republic (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1797 to 1805). The Ligurian Republic arose from the revolution of May 1797, which ended the aristocratic Republic of Genoa; the earliest recorded sessions of its provisional government date from 14 June 1797.
26. Lokot Autonomous Administration (1941-1943) (Client or puppet state; Russia; 1941 to 1943). The Lokot Autonomous Administration arose in the Bryansk region at the end of 1941 or the beginning of 1942, when Konstantin Voskoboinik and Bronislav Kaminski formed a local administration under the German military command.
27. Mainz, Republic of (Client or puppet state; Germany; 1793). French troops entered the fortress of Mainz without a fight on 21 October 1792, after the Elector and his court had fled.
28. Manchukuo (Client or puppet state; China; 1932 to 1945). Manchukuo was established on 1 March 1932 in north-eastern China under Japanese backing and lasted until August 1945; China and the international community did not recognise it.
29. Mengjiang (Mengkukuo) and the Mongolian Federation Movement (1934 to 1945) (Client or puppet state; China; 1936 to 1945). Inner Mongolia had remained under Chinese administration for generations when, in 1934, the Mongol nobleman Prince Demchugdongrub, who had sought regional autonomy without success since the late 1920s, pressed Nanjing for self-government, threatening to seek Japanese backing unless it was granted, in the circumstances created by Japan's creation of Manchukuo in 1932.
30. Mong Hsat (Client or puppet state; Myanmar; 1950 to 1961). Chinese Nationalist (Kuomintang) forces from Yunnan entered the Shan States of Burma in January 1950, with about 200 men entering Kengtung State at first and about 1,500 more arriving in March.
31. Montenegrin State Council (Drljević, 1944-1945) (Client or puppet state; Montenegro; 1944 to 1945). Sekula Drljević, a Montenegrin separatist politician who had first sought Italian protection for a Montenegrin state, turned to Germany after Italy's capitulation and in the middle of 1943 contacted the German embassy in Zagreb.
32. Montenegro, Italian-Sponsored Independent State of (1941) (Client or puppet state; Montenegro; 1941). After the collapse of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Italy occupied Montenegro and its leadership disagreed about the territory's future: King Victor Emmanuel III wanted a greater Montenegro under the Petrović dynasty, while Mussolini wanted a union of Albania and Montenegro under Italian protection.
33. Northern Cyprus (discussed as boundary case) (Client or puppet state; Northern Cyprus; 1983 to present). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was proclaimed in November 1983 by the Turkish Cypriot administration that had governed the northern part of Cyprus since the Turkish military intervention of 1974, itself launched in response to a coup d'état against the Cypriot government backed by the military junta then ruling Greece.
34. Parthenopean Republic (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1799). The Parthenopean Republic was proclaimed at Naples on 23 January 1799, after troops of the French Republic under General Championnet had conquered the Kingdom of Naples.
35. Pasundan, State of (Negara Pasundan, 1947 to 1950) (Client or puppet state; Indonesia; 1947 to 1950). Negara Pasundan was a state in West Java created within the federal design of the Dutch Lieutenant Governor General Hubertus van Mook.
36. Philippines, Second Republic of (Client or puppet state; Philippines; 1943 to 1945). The Second Philippine Republic was inaugurated on 14 October 1943 under Japanese sponsorship, with Jose P. Laurel as president and Benigno S. Aquino as speaker of the National Assembly.
37. Piedmont, Republican Provisional Government and French Occupation of (1798-1802) (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1798 to 1802). On 8 December 1798 King Charles Emmanuel IV was compelled to sign an act ceding all authority over Piedmont to the French.
38. Poland, Soviet Socialist Republic of (Polrewkom) (Client or puppet state; Poland; 1920). The Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee, known by its Russian-derived acronym Polrewkom, was the prospective government of a Soviet Poland during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919 to 1921.
39. Provisional Free Kuwait Government (1990) (Client or puppet state; Kuwait; 1990). Iraq announced a puppet administration in Kuwait soon after its invasion of 2 August 1990, naming Alaa Hussein Ali, a Kuwaiti army officer, as prime minister of Kuwait to govern in Baghdad's name, according to Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
40. Ralik Islands, Kingdom of the (Client or puppet state; Marshall Islands; 1863 to 1885). The Kingdom of the Ralik Islands was a title that rested on German recognition of the Marshallese chief Kabua.
41. Rauracian Republic (Client or puppet state; Switzerland; 1792 to 1793). The Rauracian Republic was a sister republic of France, proclaimed on 17 December 1792 in the northern part of the prince-bishopric of Basel.
42. Rhineland, Republic of the (Rhenish Republic) (Client or puppet state; Germany; 1919 to 1923). The Rhenish Republic was the product of a series of separatist attempts, led by the jurist Hans Adam Dorten, to detach the French-occupied Rhineland from Germany after the First World War.
43. Roman Republic (1798) (Client or puppet state; Italy; 1798 to 1799). The Roman Republic was proclaimed on 15 February 1798 from the Capitoline Hill by General Louis-Alexandre Berthier, five days after the French army had occupied Rome on 10 February.
44. Sanusiyah (Client or puppet state; Libya; 1843 to 1951). The Emirate of Cyrenaica was proclaimed at Benghazi in 1949 by Sayyid Idris al-Sanusi, head of the Sanusi order, with explicit British support.
45. Second Mexican Empire (Client or puppet state; Mexico; 1864 to 1867). Archduke Maximilian of Austria accepted the Mexican crown on 10 April 1864 and ratified the Convention of Miramar, and he and his wife Charlotte arrived in Mexico City on 12 June 1864.
46. Serbia, Government of National Salvation (Nedić Regime, 1941-1944) (Client or puppet state; Serbia; 1941 to 1944). German forces occupied Serbia in 1941 and governed it through a military commander.
47. Slovak Republic (1939) (Client or puppet state; Slovakia; 1939 to 1945). The Slovak Republic was proclaimed on 14 March 1939 under German pressure.
48. Ukrainian State (Hetmanate of Pavlo Skoropadsky, 1918) (Client or puppet state; Ukraine; 1918). The Ukrainian State, also called the Hetmanate, was proclaimed on 29 April 1918 through the Manifesto to the Entire Ukrainian Nation and the Laws on the Provisional State System of Ukraine.
49. Valais, Republic of (Rhodanic Republic) (Client or puppet state; Switzerland; 1802 to 1810). Valais was declared independent under a treaty signed at Sion and Bex on 28 August 1802, a status that Alain-Jacques Czouz-Tornare describes as having the appearance of a protectorate.
50. Vichy France (French State, 1940-1944) (Client or puppet state; France; 1940 to 1944). France signed an armistice with Germany at Compiègne on 22 June 1940, General Charles Huntziger signing for France and Colonel General Wilhelm Keitel for Germany; the text placed the northern and western part of the country under German occupation, bound the French government to support with every means the regulations resulting from Germany's exercise of occupying-power rights, obliged France to bear the costs of the occupation troops, and permitted Germany to demand the surrender of Germans named by its government.
51. Vietnam, Empire of (Client or puppet state; Vietnam; 1945). The Empire of Vietnam came into being after the Japanese coup of 9 March 1945 ended French colonial rule in Indochina.
52. Wang Jingwei Regime (Reorganized National Government of China) (Client or puppet state; China; 1940 to 1945). The Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China, known as the Wang Jingwei regime after its president, the former Kuomintang leader Wang Jingwei, was launched at Nanjing on 30 March 1940 under Japanese sponsorship.

VI.1. Internationally Administered Zones

1. Crete, Autonomous State of (Internationally administered zone; Greece; 1898 to 1913). The Cretan State was established in December 1898 as an autonomous territory under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan and the supervision of the Great Powers.
2. Danzig, Free City of (Internationally administered zone; Poland; 1920 to 1939). The Free City of Danzig was created by the Treaty of Versailles of 28 June 1919, in which Germany renounced its rights over a defined territory around the port, bounded by the Baltic Sea, East Prussia and the Vistula (Article 100).
3. Hatay, State of (Internationally administered zone; Türkiye; 1938 to 1939). The State of Hatay was formed from the Sanjak of Alexandretta, a district of the French mandate of Syria with a mixed population, which Turkey claimed from 1936.
4. Ionian Islands, United States of the (British Protectorate, 1815 to 1864) (Internationally administered zone; Greece; 1815 to 1864). The United States of the Ionian Islands was constituted by a treaty concluded at Paris on 5 November 1815 between the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia, which placed Corfu, Cephalonia, Zakynthos, Lefkada, Ithaca, Kythira and Paxoi under British protection.
5. Moresnet, Neutral (Internationally administered zone; Belgium; 1816 to 1920). Neutral Moresnet was a small territory on the border of Prussia and the Netherlands, created in 1816 after the Congress of Vienna to resolve a dispute between the two states over the zinc mine at Vieille Montagne, which both wished to control.
6. Septinsular Republic (Internationally administered zone; Greece; 1800 to 1807). The Septinsular Republic, or Republic of the Seven United Islands, was established by the Treaty of Constantinople of 21 March 1800 on the Ionian Islands, which had been under French rule until 1799.
7. Tangier, International Zone of (Internationally administered zone; Morocco; 1923 to 1956). The International Zone of Tangier was an internationally administered enclave in northern Morocco, governed under a Convention of 18 December 1923 which was amended in 1928, when Italy took part in the regime.
8. Trieste, Free Territory of (Internationally administered zone; Italy; 1947 to 1954). The Free Territory of Trieste was provided for in the Treaty of Peace with Italy, but its provisions could not be implemented.

VI.2. Free Cities and Negotiated Special-Status Territories

1. Andorra, Co-Principality of (Free city or special-status territory; Andorra; 1278 to present). Andorra is governed by two co-princes, the Bishop of Urgell and the President of the French Republic, an arrangement that goes back to the paréages of 1278 and 1288, which settled the rival claims of the Bishop of Urgell and the Counts of Foix to the Pyrenean valleys by establishing a shared…
2. Fiume, Free State of (Free city or special-status territory; Croatia; 1919 to 1924). The Italian poet Gabriele D'Annunzio led the seizure of Fiume in 1919 and proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro on 8 September 1920.
3. Flaschenhals, Freistaat (Free State of the Bottleneck) (Free city or special-status territory; Germany; 1919 to 1923). After the Armistice of 11 November 1918 the Allied bridgeheads of Koblenz and Mainz left an unoccupied strip of territory between them, which remained part of Prussia and the German Reich.
4. Hanseatic Free Cities, Restoration of the (Free city or special-status territory; Germany; 1813 to 1815). Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck were independent city-states within the Holy Roman Empire in the eighteenth century.
5. Kraków, Free City of (Free city or special-status territory; Poland; 1815 to 1846). The Free City of Kraków was created by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, signed on 9 June 1815, which declared the city a free, independent and strictly neutral city under the protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia, whose three powers held supervisory rights over it.
6. Mosquito Coast, Kingdom of the (Free city or special-status territory; Nicaragua; 1630 to 1894). The Miskito Kingdom was a polity of the Caribbean coast of Central America under British protection.
7. Orania (Free city or special-status territory; South Africa; 1990 to present). Orania is a privately owned Afrikaner settlement in the Northern Cape, South Africa, on the site of Vluytjeskraal, a township developed by the Department of Water Affairs from 1963.
8. Saarland (Free city or special-status territory; Germany; 1947 to 1956). From 1947 the Saar was joined to France in a customs, economic and monetary union, with limited autonomy under a constitution that placed it in the status of a French protectorate; the French High Commissioner, Gilbert Grandval, retained authority.
9. Samos (Free city or special-status territory; Greece; 1834 to 1912). The Principality of Samos existed from 1834 to 1912 as an autonomous principality under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire.
10. Åland Islands (Free city or special-status territory; Finland; 1917 to present). The status of the Åland Islands arose after Finland became independent from Russia in December 1917, when the Swedish-speaking population petitioned for union with Sweden.

VII.1. Repatriation and Colonisation Settlements

1. Liberia, Colony and Commonwealth of (Colonisation or repatriation settlement; Liberia; 1822 to 1847). Liberia began as a settlement of free Black emigrants sent from the United States by the American Colonization Society.
2. Maryland-in-Africa (Colonisation or repatriation settlement; Liberia; 1834 to 1857). Maryland-in-Africa was a colony of free Black emigrants founded by the Maryland State Colonization Society at Cape Palmas, on the coast of present-day Liberia.

VII.2. Personal and Chartered Dominions

1. Congo Free State (Chartered or personal dominion; Democratic Republic of the Congo; 1885 to 1908). The Congo Free State (1885 to 1908) was a territory in central Africa held by Leopold II, King of the Belgians, as a personal possession and not as a colony of Belgium.
2. Massangano (Chartered or personal dominion; Mozambique; 1850 to 1888). Massangano was a fortified stronghold, or aringa, on the Zambezi in what is now Mozambique, at the confluence of the Luenha and the Zambezi a few miles below Tete.
3. Massingire (Chartered or personal dominion; Mozambique; 1884 to 1888). Massingire was a chieftaincy of the lower Zambezi in what is now Mozambique.
4. Order of Saint John (Knights of Malta) and Its Caribbean Colonies (Chartered or personal dominion; Saint Kitts and Nevis; 1651 to 1665). The Order of Saint John, also styled the Military Order of Malta, held the island of Malta as its own territory from 1530 until 1798.
5. Poyais, Principality of (MacGregor's Scheme) (Chartered or personal dominion; Honduras; 1822 to 1823). Poyais was a purported state on the Mosquito Coast of Central America, promoted in the 1820s by the Scottish adventurer Gregor MacGregor, who sold bonds for it on the London capital market although no such state existed.
6. Sarawak under the Brooke Dynasty (Chartered or personal dominion; Malaysia; 1841 to 1946). Sarawak, on the north-west coast of Borneo, was ruled from 1841 to 1946 by three successive members of the Brooke family, styled Rajah.
7. Transylvania, Colony of (Chartered or personal dominion; United States; 1775 to 1776). The Transylvania Company was formed by Richard Henderson, a North Carolina land speculator, who had organised the Louisa Company in 1774 with six associates and enlarged and renamed it the following year.

VIII.1. Filibuster Republics

1. Allen, Ira, and the Canada Scheme of 1796 (Filibuster republic; United States; 1796). Ira Allen, brother of Ethan Allen and a principal founder of the Vermont Republic, went to France in 1795 to buy arms for the Vermont militia.
2. Amelia Island, Republic of the Floridas and the Mexican Republic proclaimed at (Filibuster republic; United States; 1817). Amelia Island lies off the Atlantic coast of Florida at the mouth of the St Marys River.
3. Burr Conspiracy, The (Filibuster republic; United States; 1805 to 1807). Aaron Burr, who had killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 1804, travelled through the western United States in 1805 and 1806 and gathered men and boats for a venture whose object has been disputed.
4. Caribbea (Filibuster republic; Nicaragua; 1914). On the night of 5 July 1914 Clifford D. Sands led an attack on the main barracks at Bluefields, on Nicaragua's Atlantic coast.
5. East Florida, Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1812 to 1813). The Republic of East Florida was set up in 1812 by the Patriot Army, a body of Georgia settlers who invaded Spanish East Florida in March of that year with de facto support from the United States government.
6. Fenian Raids on Canada, The (Filibuster republic; Canada; 1866 to 1871). The Fenian Brotherhood, composed of Irish-American veterans of the Civil War, sought Irish independence from Britain and hoped to win it by taking Canada hostage.
7. Fredonia, Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1826 to 1827). Haden Edwards received an empresarial grant from the Mexican authorities on 14 April 1825 that allowed him to settle up to 800 families around Nacogdoches.
8. Hawaii, Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1894 to 1898). Queen Liliʻuokalani's government was overthrown on 17 January 1893, and a Provisional Government took power, with Sanford B. Dole agreeing that day to chair its executive council.
9. Lower California and Sonora, Republic of (Filibuster republic; Mexico; 1853 to 1854). In October 1853 William Walker sailed from San Francisco with about 45 men.
10. López, Narciso, and the Cuba Expeditions (Filibuster republic; Cuba; 1849 to 1851). Narciso Lopez, born into a wealthy family in Caracas, fought for Spain against Simon Bolivar's forces and later held a high military post in Cuba.
11. Miranda, Francisco de, and the Venezuela Expedition of 1806 (Filibuster republic; Venezuela; 1806). Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan-born veteran of European service and a long-standing advocate of Spanish American independence, organised in the United States in 1806 an expedition against Venezuela.
12. Nicaragua, William Walker's Regime in (Filibuster republic; Nicaragua; 1855 to 1857). William Walker led a failed filibustering expedition to Baja California in 1853 and launched an expedition to Nicaragua in 1855.
13. Rio Grande, Republic of the (Filibuster republic; United States; 1840). On 17 January 1840 Federalist leaders met in convention at Laredo, Texas, and declared independence from Mexico.
14. Tejas, Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1813). In December 1811 Jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara went to Washington to seek United States support for the antiroyalist cause in Mexican Texas.
15. Texas, Long Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1819 to 1821). An advance force of 120 men under Eli Harris crossed the Sabine River on 8 June 1819, and James Long arrived at Nacogdoches on 21 June.
16. West Florida, Republic of (Filibuster republic; United States; 1810). In September 1810 rebels led by Philemon Thomas took the fort at Baton Rouge in a brief firefight and raised a convention flag, and the settlers established the State of West Florida.

VIII.2. Self-Proclaimed Monarchs and Rebranded Regimes

1. Austenasia, Empire of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; United Kingdom; 2008 to present). Austenasia is a micronation declared in 2008 by Jonathan Austen, styled Emperor Jonathan I, at a semi-detached house on Green Wrythe Lane in Carshalton, in the London Borough of Sutton.
2. Beaver Island, Kingdom of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; United States; 1848 to 1856). James Jesse Strang (1813 to 1856) was a lawyer from upstate New York who converted to Mormonism in 1844.
3. Bokassa I, Emperor of the Central African Empire (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Central African Republic; 1976 to 1979). Jean-Bédel Bokassa, a former officer of the French army, seized power in the Central African Republic in a coup at the turn of 1966, deposing President David Dacko.
4. Cakobau, Seru Epenisa, Tui Viti of Fiji (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Fiji; 1867 to 1874). Seru Epenisa Cakobau, chief of Bau, was the most prominent Fijian chief of the middle decades of the nineteenth century.
5. Christophe, Henry, King Henri I of Haiti (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Haiti; 1811 to 1820). Henry Christophe rose through the ranks of the Haitian revolutionary army to become one of independent Haiti's principal military commanders.
6. Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, Emperor Jacques I of Haiti (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Haiti; 1804 to 1806). Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a military commander who led the final campaigns of the Haitian Revolution after Toussaint Louverture's capture and death in French custody, proclaimed Haiti's independence from France on 1 January 1804 and at first governed as Governor-General for Life.
7. Gosha, Sultanate of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Somalia; 1835 to 1895). The forested Gosha valley along the Jubba River in southern Somalia became, from around 1835, a refuge for enslaved people fleeing Tunni and Somali plantations, its tsetse-infested terrain discouraging pursuit by Somali pastoralists who avoided the area for fear of losing their herds.
8. Iturbide, Agustín de, Emperor Agustín I of Mexico (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Mexico; 1822 to 1823). Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist Creole officer who had fought Mexico's insurgents on behalf of Spain, changed sides in 1821 and negotiated the Plan of Iguala with the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero.
9. Jaja of Opobo, King of Opobo (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Nigeria; 1870 to 1887). Jaja was born into slavery around 1821 and rose to lead a trading house in the Niger Delta state of Bonny.
10. Juan Santos Atahualpa, Rebellion and Independent Territory of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Peru; 1742 to 1756). In 1742 a highland Andean calling himself Juan Santos Atahualpa led Asháninka and Yanesha fighters against isolated Franciscan missions in the central high jungle of Peru.
11. North Sudan, Kingdom of (Bir Tawil) (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Bir Tawil; 2014 to present). In June 2014 Jeremiah Heaton, a Virginian who had stood for Congress in 2012 without success, travelled to Bir Tawil, a territory of about 800 square miles between Egypt and Sudan that neither state claims, planted a flag designed by his children and named the land the Kingdom of North Sudan.
12. Orélie-Antoine I, King of Araucanía and Patagonia (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Chile; 1860 to 1878). Orélie-Antoine de Tounens, a French lawyer, went to Chile in 1858 to meet the Mapuche and took up their campaign for self-determination.
13. Paradise, Kingdom of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; United States; 1736 to 1743). Christian Gottlieb Priber, a European utopian thinker, reached Great Tellico, an Overhill Cherokee town in what is now Tennessee, around 1736, and lived among the Cherokee for about seven years.
14. Seborga, Principality of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Italy; 1963 to present). Seborga is a village of about 300 residents in Liguria whose supporters claim that it was never absorbed under law into the Kingdom of Sardinia or the unified Italian state.
15. Sedang, Kingdom of (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Vietnam; 1888 to 1890). In 1888 the French adventurer Marie-Charles David de Mayréna, born in Toulon in 1842, had himself proclaimed Marie I, King of the Sedang, in the central highlands of what is now Vietnam.
16. Soulouque, Faustin, Emperor Faustin I of Haiti (Self-proclaimed monarchy; Haiti; 1849 to 1859). Faustin Soulouque, a general of the Haitian revolutionary and post-independence armies, was elected president of Haiti in 1847 by a legislature that regarded him as a pliable figurehead who would leave the political elite in control.
17. Yuan Shikai, Empire of China under (Self-proclaimed monarchy; China; 1915 to 1916). Yuan Shikai, who had become president of the Republic of China in 1912, announced on 12 December 1915 that he accepted what he called public opinion and would take the throne; the state was to be renamed the Empire of China.

VIII.3. Maritime Outlaw and Corsair Polities

1. Galveston (Lafitte's Campeche) (Maritime outlaw polity; United States; 1817 to 1821). The privateer Jean Lafitte (Laffite) established a base on Galveston Island in 1817.
2. Limahong in Pangasinan (1574 to 1575) (Maritime outlaw polity; Philippines; 1574 to 1575). The Chinese corsair Limahong (Lin Feng) reached Luzon with a fleet reported at ninety-five ships and about three thousand followers, and in November 1574 attacked Manila without success.
3. Nassau, Pirate Republic of (Flying Gang) (Maritime outlaw polity; Bahamas; 1706 to 1718). After the departure of its English garrison, Nassau on New Providence Island, the Bahamas, became by about 1713 a gathering place for privateers left unemployed by the end of the War of the Spanish Succession.
4. Saint-Malo, Republic of (Maritime outlaw polity; France; 1590 to 1594). After the seizure of the castle on 11 and 12 March 1590, during the Wars of Religion, the town council of Saint-Malo governed the port as an independent authority and assumed control over defence, foreign relations, finance, policing, justice and trade.
5. Salé, Republic of (Maritime outlaw polity; Morocco; 1627 to 1668). The Republic of Salé was a corsair city-state on the Bou Regreg estuary on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, founded in 1627.

IX.1. Offshore and Constructed Ventures

1. Abaco, Independence Movement of (Offshore or constructed venture; Bahamas; 1972 to 1973). In 1973 Michael Oliver, whose Minerva project had been undone by Tongan annexation the year before, turned to Abaco, an island of about 6,500 people in the northern Bahamas, where secessionist feeling opposed rule from Nassau once the Bahamas became independent.
2. Abalonia (Offshore or constructed venture; Pacific Ocean; 1966). Abalonia was a scheme of the mid-1960s to found a nation on Cortes Bank, a submerged shoal off the coast of southern California.
3. Counani, Republic of (Offshore or constructed venture; Brazil; 1886 to 1904). The Republic of Counani (also written Cunani) was a claim to independence made in the Contested Territory, the stretch of Atlantic coast between the Oyapock and the Amazon over which France and Brazil disputed ownership under Article VIII of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713).
4. EnenKio, Kingdom of (Offshore or constructed venture; Wake Island; 1994 to present). The Kingdom of EnenKio was a claim to Wake Island, which it called Enen Kio, advanced by Robert F. Moore, a Honolulu resident who presented himself as head of state.
5. Espiritu Santo, Nagriamel Rebellion of (Offshore or constructed venture; Vanuatu; 1980). Jimmy Stevens led the Nagriamel movement on Espiritu Santo, in the New Hebrides, the Anglo-French condominium that became Vanuatu in 1980.
6. Freedonia, Principality of (Offshore or constructed venture; United States; 1992 to present). The Principality of Freedonia is a libertarian micronation begun in 1992 in Houston, Texas, when John Alexander Kyle, then a high-school student, and his friends declared their parents' homes part of the "Republic of Freedonia".
7. Melchizedek, Dominion of (Offshore or constructed venture; Vanuatu; 1990 to present). The Dominion of Melchizedek was a self-declared state founded in 1990 by David Korem, a California-based self-described prophet who said that its purpose was religious.
8. Minerva, Republic of (Offshore or constructed venture; Minerva Reefs; 1972). Michael Oliver, a land developer and coin dealer of Carson City, Nevada, born in Lithuania in 1928, survived the Nazi camps, reached the United States in 1947 and in 1968 published A New Constitution for a New Country, which proposed government limited to protecting against force and fraud.
9. New Atlantis, Republic of (Offshore or constructed venture; Jamaica; 1964 to 1966). On 4 July 1964 Leicester Hemingway, the younger brother of the novelist Ernest Hemingway, raised a flag on a bamboo raft about six miles off Jamaica and declared it the Republic of New Atlantis.
10. New Utopia, Principality of (Offshore or constructed venture; Bahamas; 1998 to present). The Principality of New Utopia was a project to build a country in the Caribbean, promoted over the Internet from 1998 by Lazarus R. Long, also known as Howard Turney, who did business as New Utopia.
11. Phoenix Foundation, The (Offshore or constructed venture; United States; 1971 to 1980). The Phoenix Foundation was the name adopted in June 1975 by the organisation through which Michael Oliver pursued attempts to found new libertarian jurisdictions in the early 1970s and until 1980.
12. Redonda, Kingdom of (Offshore or constructed venture; Antigua and Barbuda; 1865 to present). Redonda is a small, steep, uninhabited island in the Leeward Islands of the Caribbean, now part of Antigua and Barbuda.
13. Roses, Isle of the (Offshore or constructed venture; Italy; 1968 to 1969). The Isle of the Roses was an artificial platform built by Giorgio Rosa, an engineer from Bologna, in the Adriatic about 11.6 kilometres off Rimini, just outside Italian territorial waters.
14. Sealand, Principality of (Offshore or constructed venture; United Kingdom; 1967 to present). Roughs Tower, one of the Maunsell sea forts built for anti-aircraft defence, was towed into position in the North Sea on 11 February 1942 and abandoned in 1948.
15. Trinidad, Principality of (Offshore or constructed venture; Brazil; 1893 to 1896). James Harden-Hickey, a Franco-American writer and monarchist, claimed the uninhabited South Atlantic island of Trinidad (Trindade), which he found had never been claimed, and styled himself James I, Prince of Trinidad.
16. Waveland (Rockall, Greenpeace, 1997) (Offshore or constructed venture; Rockall; 1997). Three Greenpeace members, Al Baker, Meike Huelsman and Peter Morris, occupied Rockall from 10 June to 22 July 1997, a stay of 42 days, to protest against oil exploration.

IX.2. Serious Micronational and Personal Claims of Statehood

1. Aerican Empire (Micronation or personal claim; Canada; 1987 to present). The Aerican Empire is a Canadian micronation that Eric Lis founded in 1987, and Wanderlust magazine in 2015 credited it with its own currency, flag, anthem and passport stamp.
2. Aeterna Lucina, State of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; 1978 to present). Aeterna Lucina was a micronation proclaimed in 1978 by a German migrant to Australia who, according to Forbes Argentina, faced accusations of fraud.
3. Akhzivland (Micronation or personal claim; Israel; 1971 to present). Akhzivland is a self-declared micronation on the coast at Akhziv, near Israel's border with Lebanon, founded by Eli Avivi, an Iranian-born settler.
4. Atlantium, Empire of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; 1981 to present). The Empire of Atlantium is an Australian micronation established in 1981 by George Cruickshank, who styles himself His Imperial Majesty George II.
5. Bumbunga, Province of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; undated). The Province of Bumbunga is a self-proclaimed independent state in South Australia, at a railway siding near Lochiel about 130 kilometres north-north-west of Adelaide.
6. Celestial Space, Nation of (James Mangan) (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1949 to present). James T. Mangan of Chicago claimed outer space in January 1949 by filing a charter for the Nation of Celestial Space, or Celestia, with the Cook County Recorder of Deeds, naming himself its First Representative.
7. Conch Republic, The (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1982 to present). In early spring 1982 the federal government set up a roadblock on US 1 north of Key West to search vehicles for narcotics and illegal immigrants.
8. Coral Sea Islands, Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the (Micronation or personal claim; Coral Sea Islands; 2004 to present). The Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands declared secession from Australia in June 2004 on Cato Island, a reef within the Australian external territory of the Coral Sea Islands.
9. Cospaia, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Italy; 1440 to 1826). The Republic of Cospaia was a hamlet in the upper Tiber valley that, according to the Umbria regional tourism service, remained independent from the mid-fifteenth century until 1826 through a boundary error.
10. Elleore, Kingdom of (Micronation or personal claim; Denmark; 1944 to present). The Kingdom of Elleore is a micronation on a small island in Roskilde Fjord, Denmark, which a group of teachers bought in August 1944 and then proclaimed a kingdom.
11. Filettino, Principality of (Micronation or personal claim; Italy; 2011 to present). In August 2011 Luca Sellari, mayor of Filettino, a town of 598 residents in the hills east of Rome, proposed that it become an independent principality under a monarch, in protest at the emergency budget adopted on 12 August, which included a measure to merge small municipalities.
12. Forvik, Free State of (Stuart Hill) (Micronation or personal claim; United Kingdom; 2008 to present). Forvik is a rock off Shetland that Stuart Hill, a former blacksmith, claims as an independent state.
13. Frestonia, Free Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; United Kingdom; 1977 to 1982). In 1977 the Greater London Council planned to demolish derelict buildings on Freston Road in North Kensington, and about 120 squatters resisted and declared themselves the Free and Independent State of Frestonia.
14. Hutt River, Principality of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; 1970 to 2020). The Principality of Hutt River was a wheat farm of about 75 square kilometres, more than 500 kilometres north of Perth, that its owner Leonard Casley declared independent in 1970 in a dispute with the Western Australian government over wheat quotas.
15. Isle of Dogs, Republic of the (Micronation or personal claim; United Kingdom; 1970). On 1 March 1970 residents of the Isle of Dogs, the peninsula formed by a bend in the River Thames in east London, declared a unilateral declaration of independence led by the local activist Ted Johns.
16. Islonia, Dry Island (Loch Gairloch) (Micronation or personal claim; United Kingdom; 2010 to present). In May 2010 the McWhinney family, who have owned Dry Island in Loch Gairloch, Wester Ross, for several generations, announced the micronational status of the island as Islonia, a name compounded from the names of the daughters of Ian McWhinney and Jess Dodd, Iona and Isla.
17. Justus Township (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1995 to 1996). The Freemen, an anti-government group, gave the name Justus Township to a 960-acre farm near Jordan in Garfield County, Montana, and rejected federal authority in favour of their own reading of the law.
18. Jämtland, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Sweden; 1963 to present). The Jämtland Liberation Movement was founded in 1963 to oppose a government plan to merge the province of Jämtland with a neighbouring one, a plan Stockholm later shelved.
19. Kugelmugel, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Austria; 1984 to present). Edwin Lipburger, an Austrian artist, built a spherical wooden house in Lower Austria in the 1970s; the lack of the necessary permits led to a long conflict with the authorities of Wiener Neustadt.
20. Ladonia, Royal Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Sweden; 1996 to present). Ladonia was proclaimed in 1996 by the Swedish artist Lars Vilks as an independent state on about one square kilometre of rocky shore in the Kullaberg Nature Reserve in Skåne, where he had built the driftwood sculpture Nimis without permission.
21. Liberland, Free Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Croatia; 2015 to present). The Free Republic of Liberland was proclaimed on 13 April 2015 by the Czech libertarian politician Vít Jedlička on about seven square kilometres of woodland on the western bank of the Danube between Croatia and Serbia, land that neither state had claimed since the break-up of Yugoslavia.
22. Malu Entu, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Italy; 2008 to present). Salvatore "Doddore" Meloni, a Sardinian independence activist, declared the Republic of Malu Entu during the night of 24 and 25 August 2008, with five supporters, on the islet of Mal di Ventre, 81 hectares in area and about 6.5 kilometres off Sardinia's west coast.
23. Marlborough, Principality of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; 1993 to present). In June 1993 George Muirhead, a Queensland grazier, was reported to have declared his property near Jericho the Principality of Marlborough, styling himself Duke, in a dispute over debt.
24. Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, Proposed State of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1977). In 1977 the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket proposed to secede from Massachusetts.
25. Molossia, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1977 to present). Kevin Baugh founded a micronation in 1977 near Portland, Oregon, as the Grand Republic of Vuldstein, with James Spielman as King James I and Baugh as Prime Minister.
26. Neustadt, Bunte Republik (Dresden, 1990) (Micronation or personal claim; Germany; 1990 to present). The Bunte Republik Neustadt was proclaimed on 20 June 1990 in the Äußere Neustadt district of Dresden, in reaction to residents' fears that the district would fall under Western control after reunification.
27. North Dakota Secession Crisis of 1934 (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1934). William Langer, known as Fighting Bill, became Governor of North Dakota in 1933.
28. North Dumpling Island, Kingdom of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1986 to present). North Dumpling Island, about 1.2 hectares off the Connecticut coast, belongs to the American inventor Dean Kamen, who bought it in the 1980s as a retreat and calls it, as a joke, an independent nation, with himself as Lord Dumpling.
29. Nutopia (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1973 to present). On 1 April 1973 John Lennon and Yoko Ono issued a declaration announcing the birth of a conceptual country, Nutopia, and presented it at a press conference at the Association of the Bar of the City of New York, held after the United States immigration authorities had ordered Lennon to leave the country within 60 days.
30. Other World Kingdom (Micronation or personal claim; Czechia; 1996 to present). The Other World Kingdom was founded in 1996 as a resort for adherents of BDSM and female domination in a sixteenth-century château and its grounds, about three hectares in extent, at Černá in the Czech Republic.
31. Pictish Free State (Micronation or personal claim; United Kingdom; 1977 to present). According to The Scotsman, Brian Robertson, a supporter of Scottish independence, founded the Pictish Free State in 1977 on an acre of land on the Isle of Skye to promote awareness of Pictish culture, and he later changed his name by legal process to Robbie the Pict.
32. Rainbow Creek, Independent State of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; 1979 to present). Tom Barnes, a retired police officer who owned the property Yammacoona at Cowwarr in Gippsland, declared the State of Rainbow Creek on 23 July 1979, after farmers in the district, who blamed official incompetence for flood losses, were refused compensation in 1978.
33. Rough and Ready, Great Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1850). Rough and Ready, a mining town five miles west of Grass Valley in California, called itself the Great Republic of Rough and Ready from 7 April 1850 until early July of that year.
34. Slowjamastan, People's Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 2021 to present). Randy Williams, a San Diego slow-jams disc jockey who calls himself the Sultan of Slowjamastan, bought 11.07 acres of desert in California in October 2021 for 19,000 dollars and declared independence from the United States on 1 December 2021.
35. Snake Hill, Principality of (Micronation or personal claim; Australia; undated). The Principality of Snake Hill is an Australian micronation proclaimed after a long-running dispute between its founders and their bank.
36. Talossa, Kingdom of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1979 to present). Robert Ben Madison founded Talossa on 26 December 1979, at the age of 14, when he claimed his bedroom on Prospect Avenue in Milwaukee as an independent country and named himself King Robert I. Milwaukee Magazine records that Talossans developed a Romance-based language whose vocabulary has grown to tens of thousands of words, and that by 1995 the kingdom had about two dozen citizens.
37. Užupis, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; Lithuania; 1997 to present). Užupis declared itself an independent republic on 1 April 1997 within Vilnius, Lithuania, on an area of less than one square kilometre, with a president, a foreign minister, passport stamps and a currency.
38. Vevčani, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; North Macedonia; 1987 to present). Vevčani, a settlement in south-western Macedonia (now North Macedonia), became known for protests in 1987 against a plan to share its wells with a neighbouring village; the Associated Press reported in 2013 that special police units suppressed the protests but that the authorities backed down.
39. Vikesland, Kingdom of (Micronation or personal claim; Canada; 2005 to present). The Kingdom of Vikesland is a micronation near Riding Mountain National Park in Manitoba, founded in 2005 by the television newsman Christopher Beyette, who styles himself King Christopher I. According to the Associated Press report of April 2015, Beyette created it from a fascination with…
40. Westarctica, Grand Duchy of (Micronation or personal claim; Antarctica; 2001 to present). Westarctica was founded in 2001 by Travis McHenry, a naval intelligence specialist, who claimed Marie Byrd Land, about 620,000 square miles (1.6 million square kilometres) of Antarctica, arguing that the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 bars states from making new claims but says nothing about private individuals.
41. Westmoreland, State of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 1774 to 1782). Westmoreland was the name given in 1774 to the territory in Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley claimed by the Susquehanna Company, which Connecticut merged into one town and, two years later, endowed with the privileges of a county.
42. World Citizens, World Government of (Garry Davis) (Micronation or personal claim; France; 1948 to present). Garry Davis was born in Bar Harbor, Maine, on 27 July 1921, and died on 24 July 2013.
43. Zaqistan, Republic of (Micronation or personal claim; United States; 2005 to present). Zaq Landsberg, a New Yorker, bought a four-acre plot in north-western Box Elder County, Utah, online about a decade before KSL-TV reported on it in October 2015, and presents it as the Republic of Zaqistan.

IX.3. Accidental Private Holdings

1. Lundy, Island of (Martin Coles Harman's Quasi-Dominion) (Accidental private holding; United Kingdom; 1925 to 1954). Martin Coles Harman bought Lundy in 1925 and, according to the Landmark Trust, claimed that it was a "self-governing dominion".
2. Pontinha, Principality of (Funchal, Madeira) (Accidental private holding; Portugal; 2007 to present). The Forte de São José on the islet of Pontinha in Funchal harbour was sold to the Blandy family in 1903, in a deed using the phrase "de pura e irrevogável venda", pure and irrevocable sale.
3. Tristan da Cunha (early phase) (Accidental private holding; Tristan da Cunha; 1810 to 1852). The American sailor Jonathan Lambert of Salem, Massachusetts, settled on Tristan da Cunha with three companions, Andrew Millett, Thomas Currie (also recorded as Tomasso Curri) and an unnamed apprentice boy, and proclaimed himself king of the Islands of Refreshment, which comprised Tristan da Cunha and two neighbouring islands, claiming "absolute possession" of them for himself and his heirs.

IX.4. Internet-Era Cyber-Jurisdictions and Digital Micronations

1. Elgaland-Vargaland, Kingdom of (Cyber-jurisdiction or digital micronation; Sweden; 1992 to present). The Kingdom of Elgaland-Vargaland has been run since 27 May 1992 as an art project by the Swedish artists Carl Michael von Hausswolff and Leif Elggren, who style themselves King Michael I and King Leif.
2. Lomar, Republic of (Cyber-jurisdiction or digital micronation; United States; 1997 to present). The Republic of Lomar was a cyber-country that issued passports and stamps through a website and had no territory.
3. NSK State in Time (Cyber-jurisdiction or digital micronation; Slovenia; 1992 to present). The NSK State in Time is described by the art historian Inke Arns as a state without territory, founded in 1991 as an artistic response to the independence of Slovenia; its representatives include members of the IRWIN group.

X.1. Network States and Their Precursors

1. Afropolitan (Digital Nation for the African Diaspora) (Network-state project or precursor; Nigeria; 2016 to present). Afropolitan was founded in 2016 by the Nigerian-born entrepreneurs Chika Uwazie and Eche Emole as a movement serving the African diaspora.
2. Asgardia, Space Nation of (Network-state project or precursor; Austria; 2016 to present). Asgardia is a project for a nation based in space, proposed by the Russian scientist and businessman Igor Ashurbeyli, who announced it in October 2016, and administered from Vienna.
3. Bitnation (Decentralised Borderless Voluntary Nation) (Network-state project or precursor; Switzerland; 2014 to present). Bitnation was launched in 2014 by Susanne Tarkowski Tempelhof as a platform for governance services delivered over blockchain networks to participants who joined by choice and without regard to residence.
4. Free Society (Ver and Janssens Libertarian Country Project) (Network-state project or precursor; Japan; 2017 to present). In September 2017 the cryptocurrency entrepreneurs Roger Ver and Olivier Janssens announced Free Society, a venture to establish an independent country governed on libertarian principles.
5. Nation3 (Cloud Nation DAO) (Network-state project or precursor; Spain; 2021 to present). Nation3 is a decentralised autonomous organisation founded by Luis Cuende, the Aragon co-founder, and Anastasiya Belyaeva, which presents itself as a Web3-powered, tax-free cloud nation without a legal entity.
6. Network State, The (Concept) (Network-state project or precursor; United States; 2022 to present). The Network State: How To Start a New Country is a book by the technology investor Balaji Srinivasan, a former chief technology officer of Coinbase, published in 2022 in online and electronic form.
7. Plumia (Internet Country for Digital Nomads) (Network-state project or precursor; United Kingdom; 2021 to present). Plumia describes its mission as building an internet country for digital nomads.
8. Praxis (Network State Project) (Network-state project or precursor; United States; 2019 to present). Praxis is a venture co-founded by Dryden Brown that Bloomberg reported in April 2025 as calling itself a "sovereign network" and as seeking at least 10,000 acres for its first city.

X.2. Seasteading Ventures

1. Eleutheria (New Nation Project) (Seasteading venture; Australia; 2024 to present). The New Nation Project, which uses the name Eleutheria, is an Australian-based programme to found a new state, associated with the co-founder Steve Clancy.
2. Oceania (The Atlantis Project, Eric Klien) (Seasteading venture; United States; 1993 to 1994). The Atlantis Project proposed the construction of a floating sea city to be called Oceania, as a new nation governed on libertarian principles.
3. Operation Atlantis (Werner Stiefel) (Seasteading venture; United States; 1968 to present). Operation Atlantis was a libertarian project to found an independent nation at sea, led by the American pharmaceutical entrepreneur Werner K. Stiefel (1921 to 2006), and inspired by the novels of Ayn Rand.
4. Seasteading Institute, The (Seasteading venture; United States; 2008 to present). The Seasteading Institute was founded in 2008 by Patri Friedman, a former Google engineer and grandson of the economist Milton Friedman, and Wayne Gramlich.

X.3. Digital Residency and Digital-Nation Programmes

1. Tuvalu Digital Nation (Future Now) (Digital residency or digital-nation programme; Tuvalu; 2022 to present). Tuvalu, a Pacific island state exposed to rising sea levels, announced at the COP27 conference in 2022 its programme to become the world's first digital nation, presented by Minister Simon Kofe.

XI.1. Abortive Unions and Federations

1. African States, Union of (Ghana-Guinea-Mali) (Abortive union or federation; Ghana; 1958 to 1963). Ghana and Guinea, both already independent states, formed a union in 1958, and Mali joined the arrangement, which became the tripartite Union of African States.
2. Arab Islamic Republic (Libya-Tunisia, 1974) (Abortive union or federation; Tunisia; 1974). In January 1974 Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia, presidents of two independent states with international recognition, concluded at Djerba an agreement for the union of their countries, the projected Arab Islamic Republic.
3. Arab Union (Abortive union or federation; Jordan; 1958). The Arab Union was formed on 14 February 1958, when King Faisal II of Iraq and his cousin King Hussein of Jordan united their realms.
4. Central America, Federation of (1921-1922) (Abortive union or federation; Honduras; 1921 to 1922). On 19 January 1921 representatives of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador signed the Pact of Union (the Pact of San José), which created the Federation of Central America.
5. Central America, Greater Republic of (Abortive union or federation; Honduras; 1895 to 1898). By the Treaty of Amapala, concluded in Honduras on 20 June 1895, Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador agreed to form "a single political organization for the exercise of their external sovereignty" under the title Greater Republic of Central America.
6. East African Federation (1963-1964 Proposal) (Abortive union or federation; Kenya; 1963 to 1964). On 5 June 1963 Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika and Milton Obote of Uganda met in Nairobi and announced their intention to unite in an East African federation by the end of 1963.
7. Federation of Arab Republics (Abortive union or federation; Egypt; 1972 to 1977). The Federation of Arab Republics, linking Egypt, Libya and Syria, was announced by Muammar Gaddafi, Anwar Sadat and Hafez al-Assad in April 1971.
8. Gran Colombia (Abortive union or federation; Colombia; 1819 to 1831). Gran Colombia took shape in February 1819, when leaders from what are now Venezuela, Colombia and Panama met at Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar) and agreed to form a republic; Simón Bolívar was ratified as its president in August 1819.
9. Mali Federation (Abortive union or federation; Senegal; 1959 to 1960). The Mali Federation joined Senegal and the Sudanese Republic (French Sudan), and took effect on 4 April 1959.
10. Senegambia, Confederation of (Abortive union or federation; Senegal; 1982 to 1989). The Confederation of Senegambia joined Senegal and The Gambia, two independent states, in an arrangement announced on 14 November 1981 by the Senegalese president, Abdou Diouf, after talks with the Gambian president, Dawda Jawara, and set for signature on 1 February 1982.
11. United Arab Republic (Abortive union or federation; Egypt; 1958 to 1961). The United Arab Republic, a union of Egypt and Syria under Gamal Abdel Nasser, was announced on 1 February 1958 and ratified by plebiscites in both countries.

XI.2. Pre-1492 Comparative Cases (Flagged Exceptions)

1. Bactria (Pre-1492 comparative case; Afghanistan; -245 to -125). Bactria seceded from the Seleucid empire as Seleucid power weakened under Antiochus II (261 to 247 BCE).
2. Britannic Empire (Carausius and Allectus) (Pre-1492 comparative case; United Kingdom; 286 to 296). The usurpation of Carausius in Britain in 286 created what modern writers call the Britannic, or British, empire, which lasted under him until 293.
3. Commune of Rome (Pre-1492 comparative case; Italy; 1143 to 1398). In 1143 the Senate was installed on the Capitol, an expression of Roman civic autonomy towards the pope.
4. Crete, Emirate of (Pre-1492 comparative case; Greece; 824 to 961). A band of Muslims of Andalusian origin, who had spent some years in Alexandria, landed on Crete under Abu Hafs (died 861) in the 820s, a date for which 824 and 827 have both been proposed, and established an emirate on the island.
5. Gallic Empire (Pre-1492 comparative case; Germany; 260 to 274). The Gallic Empire was the breakaway western state founded by Postumus in 260, which lasted until 274.
6. Mauretania, Kingdom of (Altava) (Pre-1492 comparative case; Algeria; 508 to 578). The Vandals took Carthage from Roman control in 439; it was control of the city that made Geiseric a king.
7. Palmyrene Empire (Pre-1492 comparative case; Syria; 260 to 273). After the assassination of Odaenathus in 267, his title as chief of Palmyra, and his claim to the style "King of Kings" and to the office of corrector totius orientis, passed to his young son Vaballathus, and his widow Zenobia directed policy in the boy's name.
8. Soissons, Domain of (Syagrius) (Pre-1492 comparative case; France; 465 to 486). Syagrius, son of Aegidius, held an enclave of northern Gaul centred on Soissons that outlasted the deposition of the last western emperor in 476.
9. Thessalonica, Zealot Republic of (Pre-1492 comparative case; Greece; 1342 to 1349). In 1342, during the Byzantine civil war, the governor of Thessaloniki, Theodore Synadenos, moved to hand the city to John Kantakouzenos.
10. Yan, State of (An Lushan Rebellion) (Pre-1492 comparative case; China; 756 to 763). An Lushan, a Tang military governor on the north-eastern frontier, rose in revolt against the imperial court in 755.
11. Zanj Rebellion, State of the (Pre-1492 comparative case; Iraq; 869 to 883). The Zanj Rebellion was a revolt of enslaved East African labourers in southern Iraq against the Abbasid Caliphate, led by Ali ibn Muhammad.

XI.3. Symbolic and Unrealised Secession Proposals

1. Bektashi State in Tirana, Proposed (from 2024) (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; Albania; 2024 to present). In September 2024 the Albanian prime minister Edi Rama was reported to have proposed turning the headquarters of the Bektashi Order in Tirana into a state modelled on Vatican City.
2. Bengal, United Independent (Suhrawardy and Bose Proposal of 1947) (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; Bangladesh; 1947). In April 1947, as the partition of India approached, Suhrawardy, the premier of Bengal, announced at a press conference in Delhi on 27 April that Bengal would be an independent state, which would decide for itself later whether to link with Pakistan.
3. Inconfidência Mineira (Minas Gerais, 1789) (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; Brazil; 1789). The Inconfidência Mineira was a conspiracy of the elite of Minas Gerais, in Portuguese Brazil, who wanted an independent republic there that would end the colonial trade monopoly, encourage domestic manufacturing and create a university, but would leave slavery and the socio-economic order intact.
4. Scott, Free and Independent State of (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; United States; 1861 to 1865). In June 1861, the month in which Tennessee voted to join the Confederacy, the county court of Scott County, in the Unionist east of the state, voted to secede from Tennessee and styled the county the Free and Independent State of Scott.
5. West Kansas (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; United States; 1992). The West Kansas secession movement arose in 1992 in the south-west of the state in opposition to a school finance law passed that spring.
6. Westsylvania (Symbolic or unrealised secession proposal; United States; 1776 to 1790). In the summer of 1776 a petition was presented to the Continental Congress asking it to approve the creation of a new commonwealth to be called Westsylvania, in the upper Ohio valley.

XI.4. Recognised Self-Governments Surrendered or Withheld from Union

1. Geneva, Republic of (Recognised self-government surrendered or withheld; Switzerland; 1536 to 1798). Geneva was a city-republic that stood outside the Swiss Confederation until 1815.
2. Grisons, Three Leagues of the (Recognised self-government surrendered or withheld; Switzerland; 1524 to 1803). The Free State of the Three Leagues (Freistaat Gemeiner Drei Bünde), formed by the Grey League, the League of God's House and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, took its common constitution from the federal treaty of 1524.
3. Lithuania, Embassy of (Recognised self-government surrendered or withheld; United States; 1940 to 1991). After the Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940 the United States refused to recognise its incorporation into the Soviet Union.
4. Newfoundland, Dominion of (Recognised self-government surrendered or withheld; Canada; 1907 to 1934). The Dominion of Newfoundland gave up responsible government in 1934 after a financial crisis.
5. Ras al-Khaimah, Holdout of (Recognised self-government surrendered or withheld; United Arab Emirates; 1971 to 1972). When the Trucial States moved towards federation in 1971, Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi of Ras al-Khaimah opposed the proposal of July 1971, which replaced unanimity in the Supreme Council with decision by a majority of five emirates, including Abu Dhabi and Dubai; when six emirates signed the provisional constitution he asked for more time.

XI.5. Governments in Exile and Non-Territorial Entities with International Standing

1. Afghanistan, Representation of the Former Republic at the United Nations (from 2021) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; United States; 2021 to present). After the Taliban took power in August 2021, Ghulam Isaczai, the ambassador appointed under the government of Ashraf Ghani, asked the Secretary-General to keep Afghanistan's seat, while the Taliban challenged his credentials and nominated their spokesman Suhail Shaheen in his place.
2. Algerian Republic, Provisional Government of the (GPRA, 1958 to 1962) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Egypt; 1958 to 1962). The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic was proclaimed on 19 September 1958, with Ferhat Abbas reading the declaration of its creation; it had three formations between 1958 and 1962, under the presidency of Abbas and then of Benyoucef Benkhedda.
3. Belarus, Exile Institutions of (Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic and the Tsikhanouskaya Bodies, from 2020) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Lithuania; 2020 to present). The Belarusian Democratic Republic declared its independence on 25 March 1918; its Rada went into exile during the Polish invasion of 1919 and, according to Belarus Digest, is now based in Toronto.
4. East Turkistan Government in Exile (Washington, from 2004) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; United States; 2004 to present). An East Turkestan government in exile was announced at a press conference in Washington in September 2004.
5. Governments in Exile in Wartime London (1939 to 1945) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; United Kingdom; 1939 to 1945). London hosted the governments in exile of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Greece and Yugoslavia, together with General de Gaulle's Free French movement.
6. Kabylia, Provisional Government of, and the Federal Republic of Kabylia (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Algeria; 2010 to present). On 1 June 2010 the Kabyle singer and political leader Ferhat Mehenni announced in Paris the formation of a Provisional Government of Kabylia, which Global Voices described as an extension of the Movement for the Autonomy of Kabylia, begun nine years earlier.
7. Malta, Sovereign Military Order of (Rome, from 1834) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Italy; 1834 to present). The Order ruled Malta until Napoleon seized the island in 1798, and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 confirmed the loss; its seat moved to Ferrara in 1826 and to Rome in 1834.
8. Syria, Opposition Coalition and Interim Government of (2012 to 2025) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Türkiye; 2012 to 2025). At a Friends of Syria meeting at Marrakech on 12 December 2012, attended by representatives of more than 100 countries, the National Coalition, formed in Doha in November 2012, was recognised as a legitimate representative of the Syrian people (the wording differs between reports), and the United States recognised it.
9. Venezuela, Interim Government of Juan Guaido (2019 to 2022) (Government in exile or non-territorial entity; Venezuela; 2019 to 2022). Nicolas Maduro began a second term on 10 January 2019 after a May 2018 election that most of the opposition boycotted and much of the international community deemed illegitimate.